Manga

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Version du 24 décembre 2007 à 17:34

The kanji for "manga" from Seasonal Passersby (Shiki no Yukikai), 1798, by Santō Kyōden and Kitao Shigemasa.

www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga2.html | title = Characteristics of Japanese Manga | accessdate = 2007-09-18 | publisher = dnp.co.jp}}</ref> In their modern form, manga date from shortly after World War II<ref name="Kinsella">« »</ref> but have a long, complex history in earlier Japanese art.<ref name="Kern">« »</ref><ref name="Ito">« »</ref><ref name="Schodt 1986">Schodt, Frederik L. (1986). "Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics." Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 978-0870117527.</ref>//www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga2.html | title = Characteristics of Japanese Manga | accessdate = 2007-09-18 | publisher = dnp.co.jp}}</ref> In their modern form, manga date from shortly after World War II<ref name="Kinsella">« »</ref> but have a long, complex history in earlier Japanese art.<ref name="Kern">« »</ref><ref name="Ito">« »</ref><ref name="Schodt 1986">Schodt, Frederik L. (1986). "Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics." Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 978-0870117527.</ref> comipress.com/news/2007/03/10/1622 | title = 2006 Japanese Manga Market Drops Below 500 Billion Yen | accessdate = 2007-09-14 | date = 2007-03-10 | publisher = ComiPress}}</ref> (approximately $4.4 billion dollars).<ref> 500 billion yen in dollars

. Google 
 
 (2007-09-14)

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref> Manga have also become increasingly popular worldwide.<ref name="Wong 2006">« »</ref><ref name="Patten">Patten, Fred. 2004. Watching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1880656921.</ref> In 2006, the United States manga market was $175-200 million.<ref name="Cha"> Cha , Kai-Ming

     (2007-04-03)
   
.    Viz Media and Manga in the U.S 
. Publishers Weekly

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref>//comipress.com/news/2007/03/10/1622 | title = 2006 Japanese Manga Market Drops Below 500 Billion Yen | accessdate = 2007-09-14 | date = 2007-03-10 | publisher = ComiPress}}</ref> (approximately $4.4 billion dollars).<ref> 500 billion yen in dollars

. Google 
 
 (2007-09-14)

     (2007-04-03)
   
.    Viz Media and Manga in the U.S 
. Publishers Weekly

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref>

books.google.com/books?id=-Fc8J60XGZAC&pg=PA249&lpg=PA249&dq=manga+typically+black+white&source=web&ots=uMDXzjpj_b&sig=IDoYmSGrGHeleX-XRqsHQmKDUgU}}</ref> although some full-color manga exist (e.g. Colorful).<ref>« »</ref> In Japan, manga are usually serialized in telephone book-size manga magazines, often containing many stories each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> If the series is successful, collected chapters may be republished in paperback books called tankōbon.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> A manga artist (mangaka in Japanese) typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company.<ref name="Kinsella" /> If a manga series is popular enough, it may be animated after or even during its run.<ref>« »</ref> Although sometimes manga are drawn centering on previously existing live-action or animated films.<ref> Johnston-O'Neill , Tom

     (08/03/2007)
   
.    Finding the International in Comic Con International 
. The San Diego Participant Observer

. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. </ref><ref> Brienza , Casey

     (July 13, 2007)
   
.    Videogame Visions Udon's 'Street Fighter' titles join game-based manga scene 
. Wizard

. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. </ref> (e.g. Star Wars).<ref>Modèle:Cite comic</ref>//books.google.com/books?id=-Fc8J60XGZAC&pg=PA249&lpg=PA249&dq=manga+typically+black+white&source=web&ots=uMDXzjpj_b&sig=IDoYmSGrGHeleX-XRqsHQmKDUgU}}</ref> although some full-color manga exist (e.g. Colorful).<ref>« »</ref> In Japan, manga are usually serialized in telephone book-size manga magazines, often containing many stories each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> If the series is successful, collected chapters may be republished in paperback books called tankōbon.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> A manga artist (mangaka in Japanese) typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company.<ref name="Kinsella" /> If a manga series is popular enough, it may be animated after or even during its run.<ref>« »</ref> Although sometimes manga are drawn centering on previously existing live-action or animated films.<ref> Johnston-O'Neill , Tom

     (08/03/2007)
   
.    Finding the International in Comic Con International 
. The San Diego Participant Observer

. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. </ref><ref> Brienza , Casey

     (July 13, 2007)
   
.    Videogame Visions Udon's 'Street Fighter' titles join game-based manga scene 
. Wizard

. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. </ref> (e.g. Star Wars).<ref>Modèle:Cite comic</ref>

m-w.com/dictionary/manga | title = Definition of manga | publisher = Merriam-Webster Online}}</ref> However, manga and manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in other parts of the world, particularly in Korea ("manhwa")<ref> Manhwa: 만화

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref> and in the People's Republic of China, including Hong Kong ("manhua").<ref name="Wong 2002">« »</ref> In France, "la nouvelle manga" is a form of bande dessinée drawn in styles influenced by Japanese manga.<ref>« »</ref> In the U.S., manga-like comics are called Amerimanga, world manga, or original English-language manga (OEL manga).<ref> World Manga

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref>//m-w.com/dictionary/manga | title = Definition of manga | publisher = Merriam-Webster Online}}</ref> However, manga and manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in other parts of the world, particularly in Korea ("manhwa")<ref> Manhwa: 만화

. Anime News Network

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref>

www.kyotomm.com/english/about_5.html</ref>//www.kyotomm.com/english/about_5.html</ref>

Sommaire

1 Etymology
2 History and characteristics
- 2.1 Overview of ideas
- 2.2 After World War II
  - 2.2.1 Shōjo manga
  - 2.2.2 Shōjo manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to today
3 Publications
4 International markets
- 4.1 United States
- 4.2 Europe and the UK
5 Aesthetic influences on cartooning in the US and France
6 International Manga Award
7 See also
8 References

Etymology

Manga, literally translated, means "whimsical pictures". The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden's picturebook "Shiji no yukikai" (1798), and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's "Manga hyakujo" (1814) and the celebrated Hokusai manga containing assorted drawings from the sketchbook of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai. The first user of the word "manga" as its modern usage is Rakuten Kitazawa.<ref name="Manga no Jiten">Isao Shimizu, Nihon Manga no Jiten p53-54 p102-103, ISBN 4-385-15586-0</ref>

History and characteristics

Main article: History of manga

Overview of ideas

Image:京都国際マンガミュージアム.jpg

The Kyoto International Manga Museum has an extensive collection of historical and contemporary manga.

Historians and writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in the relative importance they attribute to the role of cultural and historical events following World War II versus the role of pre-War, Meiji, and pre-Meiji Japanese culture and art.

The first view emphasizes events occurring during and after the U.S. Occupation of Japan (1945-1952), and stresses that manga was strongly shaped by United States cultural influences, including U.S. comics brought to Japan by the GIs and by images and themes from U.S. television, film, and cartoons (especially Disney).<ref name="Kinsella" /><ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Kinsella also sees a central role for how the booming post-war Japanese publishing industry helped create a consumer-oriented society in which publishing giants like Kodansha could shape popular taste.<ref name="Kinsella" />

Japanese writers like Takashi Murakami have also stressed events after WWII, but Murakami sees Japan's staggering defeat and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as having created long-lasting scars on the Japanese artistic psyche, which, in this view, lost its previously virile confidence in itself and sought solace in harmless and cute ("kawaii") images.<ref name="Murakami">« »</ref> However, Takayumi Tatsumi sees a special role for a transpacific economic and cultural transnationalism that created a postmodern and shared international youth culture of cartooning, film, television, music, and related popular arts, which was, for Tatsumi the crucible in which modern manga have developed.<ref name="Tatsumi">« »</ref>

www.starwars.com/eu/lit/comics/news20000105.html | title = Phantom Goes Manga | accessdate = 2007-09-18 | date = January 05, 2000 | publisher = StarWars.com}}</ref> Another example is the transfer of hip-hop culture from the United States to Japan.<ref name="Condry">« »</ref> Wong also sees a major role for transnationalism in the recent history of manga.<ref name="Wong 2006" />//www.starwars.com/eu/lit/comics/news20000105.html | title = Phantom Goes Manga | accessdate = 2007-09-18 | date = January 05, 2000 | publisher = StarWars.com}}</ref> Another example is the transfer of hip-hop culture from the United States to Japan.<ref name="Condry">« »</ref> Wong also sees a major role for transnationalism in the recent history of manga.<ref name="Wong 2006" />

However, other writers stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions as central to the history of manga. They include Frederik L. Schodt,<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Schodt 1996" /> Kinko Ito,<ref name="Ito 2000">« »</ref> and Adam L. Kern.<ref name ="Kern 2006">Kern, Adam (2006). Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyoshi of Edo Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN-10: 0674022661.</ref><ref name="Kern 2007">« »</ref>

muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v031/31.1torrance.html | accessdate = 2007-09-16 | quote = }}</ref>//muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v031/31.1torrance.html | accessdate = 2007-09-16 | quote = }}</ref>

Kinko Ito also roots manga historically in aesthetic continuity with pre-Meiji art, but she sees its post-World War II history as driven in part by consumer enthusiasm for the rich imagery and narrative of the newly developing manga tradition. Ito describes how this tradition has steadily produced new genres and markets, e.g., for girls' (shōjo) manga in the late 1960s and for Ladies Comics (redisu) in the 1980s.<ref name="Ito 2000" />

Kern has suggested that kibyoshi, illustrated picture books from the late 1700s, may have been the world's first comic books.<ref name ="Kern 2006" /> These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.<ref name ="Kern 2006" /> Although Kern does not believe that kibyoshi were a direct forerunner of manga, nonetheless, for Kern the existence of kibyoshi points to a Japanese willingness to mix words and pictures in a popular story-telling medium.<ref name="Kern 2007" /> The first recorded use of the term "manga" to mean "whimsical or impromptu pictures" comes from this tradition in 1798, which, Kern points out, predates Katsushika Hokusai's better known later usage by several decades (Kern, 2006, pp. 139-144; Figure 3.3).<ref name ="Kern 2006" />

Similarly, Inoue sees manga as being a mixture of image- and word-centered elements, each pre-dating the U.S.A. occupation of Japan. In his view, Japanese image-centered or "pictocentric" art ultimately derives from Japan's long history of engagement with Chinese graphic art, whereas word-centered or "logocentric" art, like the novel, was stimulated by social and economic needs of Meiji and pre-War Japanese nationalism for a populace unified by a common written language. Both fuse in what Inoue sees as a symbiosis in manga.<ref name="Inoue">« »</ref>

Thus, these scholars see the history of manga as involving historical continuities and discontinuities between the aesthetic and cultural past as it interacts with post-World War II innovation and transnationalism.

After World War II

Modern manga originates in the Occupation (1945-1952) and post-Occupation years (1952-early 1960s), when a previously militaristic and ultranationalist Japan was rebuilding its political and economic infrastructure.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref>This section draws primarily on the work of Frederik Schodt (1986, 1996, 2007) and of Paul Gravett (2004). Time-lines for manga history are available in Mechademia, Gravett, and in articles by Go Tchiei 1998a.</ref> Although U.S. Occupation censorship policies specifically targeted art and writing that glorified war and Japanese militarism,<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> those policies did not prevent the publication of other kinds of material, including manga. Furthermore, the 1947 Japanese Constitution (Article 21) prohibited all forms of censorship.<ref name="Kodansha">« »</ref> One result was an explosion of artistic creativity in this period.<ref name="Schodt 1986" />

Image:Tezuka cinematographic.jpg

Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique as seen in Shin Takarajima (New Treasure Island).

In the forefront of this period are two manga series and characters that influenced much of the future history of manga. These are Osamu Tezuka's Mighty Atom (Astro Boy in the United States; begun in 1951) and Machiko Hasegawa's Sazae-san (begun in 1946).

Astro Boy was both a superpowered robot and a naive little boy.<ref name="Schodt 2007">« »</ref> Tezuka never explained why Astro Boy had such a highly developed social conscience nor what kind of robot programming could make him so deeply affiliative.<ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Both seem innate to Astro Boy, and represent a Japanese sociality and community-oriented masculinity differing very much from the Emperor-worship and militaristic obedience enforced during the previous period of Japanese imperialism.<ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Astro Boy quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere as an icon and hero of a new world of peace and the renunciation of war, as also seen in Article 9 of the Japanese constitution.<ref name="Kodansha" /><ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Similar themes occur in Tezuka's New World and Metropolis.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Schodt 2007" />

By contrast, Sazae-san (meaning "Ms. Sazae") was drawn starting in 1946 by Machiko Hasegawa, a young woman artist who made her heroine a stand-in for millions of Japanese men and especially women rendered homeless by the war.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> Sazae-san does not face an easy or simple life, but, like Astro Boy, she too is highly affiliative and is deeply involved with her immediate and extended family. She is also a very strong character, in striking contrast to the officially sanctioned Neo-Confucianist principles of feminine meekness and obedience to the "good wife, wise mother" (ryōsai kenbo, りょうさいけんぼ; 良妻賢母) ideal taught by the previous military regime.<ref name="Uno">Uno, Kathleen S. 1993. "The death of 'Good Wife, Wise Mother'." In: Andrew Gordon (editor) Postwar Japan as History. Berkeley, CA: University of California. pp. 293-322. ISBN 0520074750. </ref><ref name="Ohinata">Ohinata, Masami 1995 "The mystique of motherhood: A key to understanding social change and family problems in Japan." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 199-211. ISBN 978-1558610941.</ref><ref name="Yoshizumi">Yoshizumi, Kyoko 1995 "Marriage and family: Past and present." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 183-197. ISBN 978-1558610941.</ref> Sazae-san faces the world with cheerful resilience,<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Lee 2000">Lee, William (2000). "From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0765605610.</ref> what Hayao Kawai calls a "woman of endurance."<ref name="Kawai">Kawai, Hayao. 1996. The Japanese Psyche: Major Motifs in the Fairy Tales of Japan. Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications. Chapter 7, pp. 125-142.</ref> Sazae-san sold more than 62 million copies over the next half century.<ref name="Schodt 1997">« »</ref>

Image:Sazae-san kamishibai.jpg

A kami-shibai story teller from Sazae-san by Machiko Hasegawa. Sazae is the woman with her hair in a bun.

www.animeinfo.org/animeu/hist102.html. AnimeInfo. Retrieved on 2007-09-11.</ref>//www.animeinfo.org/animeu/hist102.html. AnimeInfo. Retrieved on 2007-09-11.</ref>

www.csuchico.edu/pub/cs/spring_06/feature_03.html | accessdate = 2007-09-22 | quote = }}</ref> Up to 1969, shōjo manga was drawn primarily by adult men for young female readers.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Thorn 2001">« »</ref>//www.csuchico.edu/pub/cs/spring_06/feature_03.html | accessdate = 2007-09-22 | quote = }}</ref> Up to 1969, shōjo manga was drawn primarily by adult men for young female readers.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Thorn 2001">« »</ref>

Two very popular and influential male-authored manga for girls from this period were Tezuka's 1953-1956 Ribon no Kishi (Princess Knight or Knight in Ribbons) and Matsuteru Yokoyama's 1966 Mahōtsukai Sarii (Little Witch Sally).<ref name="Schodt 1986" />

journals2.iranscience.net:800/mcel.pacificu.edu/mcel.pacificu.edu/aspac/home/papers/scholars/yoshida/yoshida.php3 | accessdate = 2007-09-22 }}</ref> Yokoyama's Mahōtsukai Sarii was influenced by the U.S. TV sitcom Bewitched,<ref> Johnson , Melissa

     (June 27, 2006)
   
.    Bewitched by Magical Girls 
. FPS Magazine

. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. </ref> but unlike Samantha, the main character of Bewitched, a married woman with her own daughter, Sarii is a pre-teenager who faces the problems of growing up and mastering the responsibilities of forthcoming adulthood. Mahōtsukai Sarii helped create the now very popular mahō shōjo or "magical girl" subgenre of later manga.<ref name="Yoshida" /> Both series were and still are very popular.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Yoshida" />//journals2.iranscience.net:800/mcel.pacificu.edu/mcel.pacificu.edu/aspac/home/papers/scholars/yoshida/yoshida.php3 | accessdate = 2007-09-22 }}</ref> Yokoyama's Mahōtsukai Sarii was influenced by the U.S. TV sitcom Bewitched,<ref> Johnson , Melissa

     (June 27, 2006)
   
.    Bewitched by Magical Girls 
. FPS Magazine

Shōjo manga

In 1969, a group of women mangaka later called the Year 24 Group (also known as Magnificent 24s) made their shōjo manga debut (year 24 comes from the Japanese name for 1949, when many of these artists were born).<ref>Gravett, 2004, op. cit., pp.78-80.</ref><ref>Lent, 2001, op. cit., pp. 9-10.</ref> The group included Hagio Moto, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Oshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Riyoko Yamagishi<ref name="Gravett" /> and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> Thereafter, shōjo manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Thorn 2001" />

www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga6-1.html | title = Shojo Manga: A Unique Genre | accessdate = 2007-09-22 | last = Tchiei | first = Go | date = 1998 }}</ref> In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille. Likewise, Hagio Moto's work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women's roles and activities <ref name="Uno" /><ref name="Ohinata" /><ref name="Yoshizumi" /> as in her 1975 They Were Eleven, a shōjo science fiction story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.<ref>Hagio Moto 1975/1996 "They Were Eleven." In: Matt Thorn (editor) Four Shojo Stories. San Francisco: Viz Media. ISBN 1569310556. Original story published 1975; U.S. edition 1996.</ref>//www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga6-1.html | title = Shojo Manga: A Unique Genre | accessdate = 2007-09-22 | last = Tchiei | first = Go | date = 1998 }}</ref> In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille. Likewise, Hagio Moto's work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women's roles and activities <ref name="Uno" /><ref name="Ohinata" /><ref name="Yoshizumi" /> as in her 1975 They Were Eleven, a shōjo science fiction story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.<ref>Hagio Moto 1975/1996 "They Were Eleven." In: Matt Thorn (editor) Four Shojo Stories. San Francisco: Viz Media. ISBN 1569310556. Original story published 1975; U.S. edition 1996.</ref>

These women artists also created considerable stylistic innovations. In its focus on the heroine's inner experiences and feelings, shōjo manga are "picture poems"<ref>Schodt, 1986, op. cit., p 88.</ref> with delicate and complex designs that often eliminate panel borders completely to create prolonged, non-narrative extensions of time.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Thorn 2001" /><ref name="McCloud">McCloud, Scott. 1993. Understanding Comics. New York: Paradox Press. pp. 77-82.</ref> All of these innovations – strong and independent female characters, intense emotionality, and complex design – remain characteristic of shōjo manga up to the present day.<ref name="Sanchez" /><ref name="Tchiei" />

Shōjo manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to today

In the following decades (1975-present), shōjo manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres.<ref name="Ogi">Ōgi, Fusami 2004. "Female subjectivity and shōjo (girls) manga (Japanese comics): shōjo in Ladies' Comics and Young Ladies' Comics." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(4):780-803.</ref> Major subgenres have included romance, superheroines, and redisu / josei 女性じょせい, whose boundaries are sometimes indistinguishable from each other and from shōnen manga.<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Schodt 1996" />

www.mit.edu/afs/athena.mit.edu/user/r/e/rei/WWW/manga-romanticism.html The romantic, passionate Japanese in anime: A look at the hidden Japanese soul]." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 138-153. ISBN 978-0765605610. Accessed September 23, 2007.</ref>//www.mit.edu/afs/athena.mit.edu/user/r/e/rei/WWW/manga-romanticism.html The romantic, passionate Japanese in anime: A look at the hidden Japanese soul]." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 138-153. ISBN 978-0765605610. Accessed September 23, 2007.</ref>

www.refractory.unimelb.edu.au/journalissues/vol10/graillat.html America vs. Japan: the Influence of American Comics on Manga]." Refractory: A Journal of Entertainment Media, Volume 10. Accessed September 23, 2007. Literally, in German, bildungs = education and roman = novel, hence a novel about the education of the protagonist in "the ways of the world."</ref><ref name="Moretti">Moretti, Franco 1987. The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture. London: Verso. ISBN 1859842984.</ref>//www.refractory.unimelb.edu.au/journalissues/vol10/graillat.html America vs. Japan: the Influence of American Comics on Manga]." Refractory: A Journal of Entertainment Media, Volume 10. Accessed September 23, 2007. Literally, in German, bildungs = education and roman = novel, hence a novel about the education of the protagonist in "the ways of the world."</ref><ref name="Moretti">Moretti, Franco 1987. The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture. London: Verso. ISBN 1859842984.</ref>

www.animeondvd.com/reviews2/disc_reviews/6116.php | title = Peach Girl Vol. #1 (also w/box) (of 6) | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = Beveridge | first = Chris | date = 05/14/2007 | publisher = Anime on DVD}}</ref><ref name="Peach2"> Peach Girl Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>//www.animeondvd.com/reviews2/disc_reviews/6116.php | title = Peach Girl Vol. #1 (also w/box) (of 6) | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = Beveridge | first = Chris | date = 05/14/2007 | publisher = Anime on DVD}}</ref><ref name="Peach2"> Peach Girl Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> www.tokyopop.com/product/1029 | title = MARS Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = Tokyopop}}</ref> and, for mature readers, Moyoco Anno's Happy Mania,<ref name="Thorn 2001" /><ref name="Mania"> Happy Mania Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Yayoi Ogawa's Tramps Like Us,<ref name="Tramps"> Tramps Like Us (manga)

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Ai Yazawa's Nana.<ref name="Nana1"> Aoki , Deb

.    Nana by Ai Yazawa - Series Profile and Story Summary 
. About.com

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref><ref name="Nana2"> Bertschy , Zac

     (Dec 26 2005)
   
.    NANA G.novel 1 
. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> In another shōjo manga bildungsroman narrative device, the young heroine is transported to an alien place or time where she meets strangers and must survive on her own (including Hagio Moto's They Were Eleven,<ref name="Moto"> Randall , Bill

.    Three By Moto Hagio 
. The Comics Journal

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Kyoko Hikawa's From Far Away,<ref name="Far"> King , Patrick

.    From Far Away Vol. 2 
. Anime Fringe

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Yû Watase's Fushigi Yûgi: The Mysterious Play,<ref name="Fushigi"> Fushigi Yugi (manga)

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Chiho Saito's The World Exists For Me).<ref name="World"> The World Exists for Me Volume 2

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>//www.tokyopop.com/product/1029 | title = MARS Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = Tokyopop}}</ref> and, for mature readers, Moyoco Anno's Happy Mania,<ref name="Thorn 2001" /><ref name="Mania"> Happy Mania Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Yayoi Ogawa's Tramps Like Us,<ref name="Tramps"> Tramps Like Us (manga)

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Ai Yazawa's Nana.<ref name="Nana1"> Aoki , Deb

.    Nana by Ai Yazawa - Series Profile and Story Summary 
. About.com

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref><ref name="Nana2"> Bertschy , Zac

     (Dec 26 2005)
   
.    NANA G.novel 1 
. Anime News Network

.    Three By Moto Hagio 
. The Comics Journal

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Kyoko Hikawa's From Far Away,<ref name="Far"> King , Patrick

.    From Far Away Vol. 2 
. Anime Fringe

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Yû Watase's Fushigi Yûgi: The Mysterious Play,<ref name="Fushigi"> Fushigi Yugi (manga)

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Chiho Saito's The World Exists For Me).<ref name="World"> The World Exists for Me Volume 2

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>

www.tokyopop.com/product/1194/FruitsBasket/1.html | title = Fruits Basket Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = Tokyopop}}</ref>—one of the most popular shōjo manga in the United States<ref name="ICV2"> "Top 50 Manga Properties for Spring 2007: Fruits Basket." ICv2 Guide to Manga, Number 45, pp. 6, 8.</ref>—whose orphaned heroine Tohru must survive living in the woods in a house filled with people who can transform into the animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Harako Iida's Crescent Moon, heroine Mahiru meets a group of supernatural beings, finally to discover that she herself too has a supernatural ancestry when she and a young tengu demon fall in love.<ref name="Cresc"> Crescent Moon Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>//www.tokyopop.com/product/1194/FruitsBasket/1.html | title = Fruits Basket Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = Tokyopop}}</ref>—one of the most popular shōjo manga in the United States<ref name="ICV2"> "Top 50 Manga Properties for Spring 2007: Fruits Basket." ICv2 Guide to Manga, Number 45, pp. 6, 8.</ref>—whose orphaned heroine Tohru must survive living in the woods in a house filled with people who can transform into the animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Harako Iida's Crescent Moon, heroine Mahiru meets a group of supernatural beings, finally to discover that she herself too has a supernatural ancestry when she and a young tengu demon fall in love.<ref name="Cresc"> Crescent Moon Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>

www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1565 | title = Magic Knight Rayearth (manga) | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = | first = | date = | work = | publisher = Anime News Network}}</ref><ref name="MKR2"> Magic Knight Rayearth I Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>//www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1565 | title = Magic Knight Rayearth (manga) | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = | first = | date = | work = | publisher = Anime News Network}}</ref><ref name="MKR2"> Magic Knight Rayearth I Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>

www.tokyopop.com/shop/1114/TokyoMewMew/1.html | title = Tokyo Mew Mew Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = Tokyopop}}</ref> By today, the superheroine narrative template has been widely used and parodied within the shōjo manga tradition (e.g., Nao Yazawa's Wedding Peach<ref name="Wedding"> Wedding Peach

. Viz Media

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Hyper Rune by Tamayo Akiyama<ref name="Rune"> Cooper , Liann

     (November 20 2004)
   
.    RIGHT TURN ONLY!! Sugar Rush 
. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>) and outside that tradition, e.g., in bishōjo comedies like Kanan's Galaxy Angel.<ref name="Gal"> Galaxy Angel

. Broccoli Books

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>//www.tokyopop.com/shop/1114/TokyoMewMew/1.html | title = Tokyo Mew Mew Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = Tokyopop}}</ref> By today, the superheroine narrative template has been widely used and parodied within the shōjo manga tradition (e.g., Nao Yazawa's Wedding Peach<ref name="Wedding"> Wedding Peach

. Viz Media

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Hyper Rune by Tamayo Akiyama<ref name="Rune"> Cooper , Liann

     (November 20 2004)
   
.    RIGHT TURN ONLY!! Sugar Rush 
. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>) and outside that tradition, e.g., in bishōjo comedies like Kanan's Galaxy Angel.<ref name="Gal"> Galaxy Angel

. Broccoli Books

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>

In the mid-1980s and thereafter, as girls who had read shōjo manga as teenagers matured and entered the job market, shōjo manga elaborated subgenres directed at women in their 20s and 30s.<ref name="Ogi" /> This "Ladies Comic" subgenre (in Japanese, redisu レディース, redikomi レヂィーコミ, and josei) has dealt with themes of young adulthood: jobs, the emotions and problems of sexual intercourse, and friendships or love among women.<ref name="Ogi" /><ref name="Ito1">Ito, Kinko 2002. "The world of Japanese 'Ladies Comics': From romantic fantasy to lustful perversion." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(1):68-85.</ref><ref name="Ito2">Ito, Kinko 2003. "Japanese Ladies' Comics as agents of socialization: The lessons they teach." International Journal of Comic Art, 5(2):425-436.</ref><ref name="Jones">Jones, Gretchen 2002. "'Ladies' Comics': Japan's not-so-underground market in pornography for women." U.S.-Japan Women's Journal (English Supplement), Number 22, pp. 3-31.</ref><ref name="Shamoon">Shamoon, Deborah 2004. "Office slut and rebel flowers: The pleasures of Japanese pornographic comics for women." In: Linda Williams (editor) Porn Studies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 77-103.</ref>

www.yuricon.org/essays/symg.html Shoujo Yuri Manga Guide]." Accessed September 23, 2007.</ref> in work by Erica Sakurazawa,<ref name="Sakurazawa"> Font , Dillon

.    Erica Sakurazawa's Nothing But Loving You 
. Anime Fringe

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Ebine Yamaji,<ref name="Yamaji"> Fan translations of Ebine Yamaji's yuri mangas

. The Gay Comics List

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Chiho Saito.<ref name="PCUtena"> Perper, Timothy & Martha Cornog 2006. "In the Sound of the Bells: Freedom and Revolution in Revolutionary Girl Utena." Mechademia, An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:183-186.</ref> Other subgenres of shōjo-redisu manga have also developed, e.g., fashion (oshare) manga, like Ai Yazawa's Paradise Kiss<ref name="Masanao">Masanao, Amano 2004. Manga Design. Koln, Germany: Taschen GMBH. pp. 526-529. ISBN 3822825913.</ref><ref name="PKiss"> Paradise Kiss Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and horror-vampire-gothic manga, like Matsuri Hino's Vampire Knight,<ref> Vampire Knight by Matsuri Hino

. Shojo Beat

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Kaori Yuki's Cain Saga,<ref name="Cain"> Kaori Yuki

. Shojo Beat

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Mitsukazu Mihara's DOLL,<ref name="DOLL"> Doll Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-11-14. </ref> which interact with street fashions, costume play ("cosplay"), J-Pop music, and goth subcultures in complex ways.<ref name ="Fruits">Shoichi Aoki 2001 Fruits. New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0714840831.</ref><ref name="Winge">Winge, Theresa 2006. "Costuming the imagination: Origins of anime and manga cosplay." Mechademia: An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:65-76.</ref><ref name="Macias">Macias, Patrick, Evers, Izumi, and Nonaka, Kazumi (illustrator). 2004.Japanese Schoolgirl Inferno: Tokyo Teen Fashion Subculture Handbook. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books. ISBN 9780811856904.</ref>//www.yuricon.org/essays/symg.html Shoujo Yuri Manga Guide]." Accessed September 23, 2007.</ref> in work by Erica Sakurazawa,<ref name="Sakurazawa"> Font , Dillon

.    Erica Sakurazawa's Nothing But Loving You 
. Anime Fringe

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Ebine Yamaji,<ref name="Yamaji"> Fan translations of Ebine Yamaji's yuri mangas

. The Gay Comics List

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and horror-vampire-gothic manga, like Matsuri Hino's Vampire Knight,<ref> Vampire Knight by Matsuri Hino

. Shojo Beat

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Kaori Yuki's Cain Saga,<ref name="Cain"> Kaori Yuki

. Shojo Beat

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Mitsukazu Mihara's DOLL,<ref name="DOLL"> Doll Volume 1

. Tokyopop

By the start of the 21st century, manga for women and girls thus represented a broad spectrum of material for pre- and early teenagers to material for adult women.

Publications

Image:Manga reading direction.png

The reading direction in a traditional manga.

www.inside-games.jp/news/258/25855.html | title = 2007年のオタク市場規模は1866億円―メディアクリエイトが白書 | date = 2007-12-18 | publisher = Inside for Business | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | work = }}</ref> On average many volumes of manga are printed annually. The manga industry expanded worldwide. Distribution companies license and reprint manga into their native languages.//www.inside-games.jp/news/258/25855.html | title = 2007年のオタク市場規模は1866億円―メディアクリエイトが白書 | date = 2007-12-18 | publisher = Inside for Business | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | work = }}</ref> On average many volumes of manga are printed annually. The manga industry expanded worldwide. Distribution companies license and reprint manga into their native languages.

When a series has been running for a while, the stories are usually collected together and printed in dedicated book-sized volumes, called tankōbon. These are the equivalent of U.S. comic's trade paperbacks. These volumes use higher-quality paper, and are useful to those who want to "catch up" with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive. Recently, "deluxe" versions have also been printed as readers have got older and the need for something special grew. Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 yen (about $1 U.S. dollar) each to compete with the used book market.

Manga are primarily classified by the age and gender of the target audience. In particular, books and magazines sold to boys (shōnen) and girls (shōjo) have distinctive cover art and are placed on different shelves in most bookstores. Due to cross-readership, consumer response is not limited by demographics. For example, male readers subscribing to a series intended for girls and so on.

Japan also has manga cafés, or manga kissa (kissa is an abbreviation of kissaten). At a manga kissa, people drink coffee and read manga, and sometimes stay there overnight.

Traditionally, manga are written from top to bottom and right to left, as this is the traditional reading pattern of the Japanese written language. Some publishers of translated manga keep this format, but other publishers flip the pages horizontally, changing the reading direction to left to right, so as not to confuse foreign audiences or traditional comics consumers. This practice is known as "flipping". For the most part, the criticisms suggest that flipping goes against the original intentions of the creator (for example, if a person wears a shirt that reads "MAY" on it, and gets flipped, then the word is altered to "YAM"). Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts, such as a car being depicted with gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right.

Magazines

Manga magazines usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20–40 pages allocated to each series per issue. These manga magazines, or "anthology magazines", as they are also known (colloquially "phone books"), are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages long. Manga magazines also contain one-shot comics and various four-panel yonkoma (equivalent to comic strips). Manga series can run for many years if they are successful. Manga artists sometimes start out with a few "one-shot" manga projects just to try to get their name out. If these are successful and receive good reviews, they are continued.

Some relatively well-known publications are:

Other magazines such as the anime magazine Newtype features single chapters within their monthly periodicals.

Dōjinshi

Some manga artists will produce extra, sometimes unrelated material, which are known as omake (lit. "bonus" or "extra"). They might also publish their unfinished drawings or sketches, known as oekaki (lit. "sketches"). Unofficial fan-made comics are also called dōjinshi. Some dōjinshi continue with a series' story or write an entirely new one using its characters, much like fan fiction. In 2007, doujinshi sold for 27.73 billion Yen (245 million USD).<ref name="IndustrySize" />

Dōjinshi is produced by small amateur publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market in a similar fashion to small-press independently published comic books in the United States. Comiket, the largest comic book convention in the world with over 400,000 gathering in 3 days, is devoted to dōjinshi.

Gekiga

www.paulgravett.com/articles/058_gekiga/058_gekiga.htm | accessdate = 2007-12-20}}</ref> Gekiga arose in the late 1950s and 1960s partly from left-wing student and working class political activism<ref name="SchodtG"/><ref name="Isao">« »</ref> and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like Tatsumi Yoshihiro with existing manga.<ref>Isao, 2001, op. cit., pp. 147-149.</ref><ref name="Nunez">« »</ref> Examples include Sampei Shirato 's 1959-1962 Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments (Ninja Bugeichō), the story of Kagemaru, the leader of a peasant rebellion in the 1500s, which dealt directly with oppression and class struggle,<ref name="SchodtG1">Schodt, 1986, op. cit., pp. 70-71.</ref> and Hiroshi Hirata's Satsuma Gishiden, about uprisings against the Tokugawa shogunate.<ref name="Hirata"> Search results: Hirata

. Dark Horse

. Retrieved on 2007-12-19. </ref>//www.paulgravett.com/articles/058_gekiga/058_gekiga.htm | accessdate = 2007-12-20}}</ref> Gekiga arose in the late 1950s and 1960s partly from left-wing student and working class political activism<ref name="SchodtG"/><ref name="Isao">« »</ref> and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like Tatsumi Yoshihiro with existing manga.<ref>Isao, 2001, op. cit., pp. 147-149.</ref><ref name="Nunez">« »</ref> Examples include Sampei Shirato 's 1959-1962 Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments (Ninja Bugeichō), the story of Kagemaru, the leader of a peasant rebellion in the 1500s, which dealt directly with oppression and class struggle,<ref name="SchodtG1">Schodt, 1986, op. cit., pp. 70-71.</ref> and Hiroshi Hirata's Satsuma Gishiden, about uprisings against the Tokugawa shogunate.<ref name="Hirata"> Search results: Hirata

. Dark Horse

. Retrieved on 2007-12-19. </ref>

comipress.com/special/manga-zombie/manga-zombie-preface | date = 2007-10-15 | publisher = Comi Press | accessdate = 2007-12-19}}</ref> Examples include Koike and Kojima's Lone Wolf and Cub<ref>Schodt, 1986, op. cit., p. 72.</ref> and Akira, an apocalyptic tale of motorcycle gangs, street war, and inexplicable transformations of the children of a future Tokyo.<ref> Weiss , Jennifer

     (2007-11-01)
   
.    The Manga Graphic Novel: A Primer 
. Associated Content

. Retrieved on 2007-12-20. </ref> Another example is Osamu Tezuka's 1976 manga MW, a bitter story of the aftermath of the storage and possibly deliberate release of poison gas by US armed forces based in Okinawa years after World War II.<ref>« »</ref> Gekiga and the social consciousness it embodies remain alive in modern-day manga. An example is Ikebukuro West Gate Park from 2001 by Ira Ishida and Sena Aritou, a story of street thugs, rape, and vengeance set on the social margins of the wealthy Ikebukuro district of Tokyo.<ref> Pfaender , Fabien

.    IWGP, t.1 
. planetebd.com

. Retrieved on 2007-12-20. </ref>//comipress.com/special/manga-zombie/manga-zombie-preface | date = 2007-10-15 | publisher = Comi Press | accessdate = 2007-12-19}}</ref> Examples include Koike and Kojima's Lone Wolf and Cub<ref>Schodt, 1986, op. cit., p. 72.</ref> and Akira, an apocalyptic tale of motorcycle gangs, street war, and inexplicable transformations of the children of a future Tokyo.<ref> Weiss , Jennifer

     (2007-11-01)
   
.    The Manga Graphic Novel: A Primer 
. Associated Content

.    IWGP, t.1 
. planetebd.com

. Retrieved on 2007-12-20. </ref>

International markets

www.wired.com/techbiz/media/magazine/15-11/ff_manga "Japanese comics have gripped the global imagination," first page. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Wong2"> Wong, Wendy (No Date) "The Presence of Manga in Europe and North America." http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Influence refers to effects on comics markets outside of Japan and to aesthetic effects on comics artists internationally.//www.wired.com/techbiz/media/magazine/15-11/ff_manga "Japanese comics have gripped the global imagination," first page. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Wong2"> Wong, Wendy (No Date) "The Presence of Manga in Europe and North America." http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Influence refers to effects on comics markets outside of Japan and to aesthetic effects on comics artists internationally.

United States

web.mit.edu/seantek/www/papers/progress-columns.pdf Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> One of the first manga translated into English and marketed in the US was Keiji Nakazawa's Barefoot Gen, an autobiographical story of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima issued by Leonard Rifas and Educomics (1980-1983).<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 309.</ref><ref name="Rifas">Rifas, Leonard. 2004. "Globalizing Comic Books from Below: How Manga Came to America." International Journal of Comic Art, 6(2):138-171.</ref> More manga were translated between the mid-1980s and 1990s, including Golgo 13 in 1986, Lone Wolf and Cub from [[First Comics in 1987, and Kamui, Area 88, and Mai the Psychic Girl, also in 1987 and all from Viz-Eclipse Comics.<ref>Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 37, 259-260.</ref><ref name="Thompson">Thompson, Jason. 2007. "Manga: The Complete Guide." NY: Ballantine Books. p. xv.</ref> Others soon followed, including Akira from Marvel Comics-Epic Comics and Appleseed from Eclipse Comics in 1988, and later Iczer-1 (Antarctic Press, 1994)<ref name="iczer1">http://www.animanga.com/Iczer/golden-warrior.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Ippongi Bang's F-111 Bandit (Antarctic Press, 1995).<ref name="Bang"> Bang, Ippongi. 1995. "F-III Bandit." San Antonio, TX:Antarctic Press.</ref>//web.mit.edu/seantek/www/papers/progress-columns.pdf Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> One of the first manga translated into English and marketed in the US was Keiji Nakazawa's Barefoot Gen, an autobiographical story of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima issued by Leonard Rifas and Educomics (1980-1983).<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 309.</ref><ref name="Rifas">Rifas, Leonard. 2004. "Globalizing Comic Books from Below: How Manga Came to America." International Journal of Comic Art, 6(2):138-171.</ref> More manga were translated between the mid-1980s and 1990s, including Golgo 13 in 1986, Lone Wolf and Cub from [[First Comics in 1987, and Kamui, Area 88, and Mai the Psychic Girl, also in 1987 and all from Viz-Eclipse Comics.<ref>Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 37, 259-260.</ref><ref name="Thompson">Thompson, Jason. 2007. "Manga: The Complete Guide." NY: Ballantine Books. p. xv.</ref> Others soon followed, including Akira from Marvel Comics-Epic Comics and Appleseed from Eclipse Comics in 1988, and later Iczer-1 (Antarctic Press, 1994)<ref name="iczer1">http://www.animanga.com/Iczer/golden-warrior.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Ippongi Bang's F-111 Bandit (Antarctic Press, 1995).<ref name="Bang"> Bang, Ippongi. 1995. "F-III Bandit." San Antonio, TX:Antarctic Press.</ref>

www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Matters changed when translator-entrpreneur Toren Smith founded Studio Proteus in 1986. Smith and Studio Proteus acted as an agent and translator of many Japanese manga, including Masamune Shirow's Appleseed and Kosuke Fujishima's Oh My Goddess, for Dark Horse and Eros Comix, eliminating the need for these publishers to seek their own contacts in Japan.<ref name="Schodt 1996A">Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 318-321.</ref><ref name="Smith">Gilman, Michael. (No Date.) "Interview: Toren Smith." http://www.darkhorse.com/news/interviews.php?id=622 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Simultaneously, the Japanese publisher Shogakukan opened a US market initiative with their US subsidiary Viz, enabling Viz to draw directly on Shogakukan's catalogue and translation skills.<ref name="Thompson">http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>//www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Matters changed when translator-entrpreneur Toren Smith founded Studio Proteus in 1986. Smith and Studio Proteus acted as an agent and translator of many Japanese manga, including Masamune Shirow's Appleseed and Kosuke Fujishima's Oh My Goddess, for Dark Horse and Eros Comix, eliminating the need for these publishers to seek their own contacts in Japan.<ref name="Schodt 1996A">Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 318-321.</ref><ref name="Smith">Gilman, Michael. (No Date.) "Interview: Toren Smith." http://www.darkhorse.com/news/interviews.php?id=622 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Simultaneously, the Japanese publisher Shogakukan opened a US market initiative with their US subsidiary Viz, enabling Viz to draw directly on Shogakukan's catalogue and translation skills.<ref name="Thompson">http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=465). Of 178 respondents, 142 ranked the manga as either Masterpiece, Excellent, or Very Good (http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1590). See also Mays, Jonathan. February 21, 2003. Review: Ghost in the Shell. http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/ghost-in-the-shell/dvd. Accessed 2007-12-16.</ref> Another success of the mid-1990s was Sailor Moon.<ref>Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 50, 110, 124, 128, 135.</ref><ref name="MixxHist">Arnold, Adam. 2000. "Full Circle: The Unofficial History of MixxZine." http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/00.06/feature/1/index.php3 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> By 1995-1998, the Sailor Moon manga had been exported to over 23 countries, including China, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, most of Europe and North America.<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p. 95.</ref> In 1998, Mixx Entertainment-TokyoPop issued US manga book versions of Sailor Moon and CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth.<ref name="MSU">For the date and identification of the publisher as Mixx, see library records at http://www.lib.msu.edu/comics/rri/mrri/mixi.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> In 1996, Mixx Entertainment founded TokyoPop to publish manga in trade paperbacks and, like Viz, began aggressive marketing of manga to both young male and young female demographics.<ref name="Thompson2" /><ref name="MixxHist2">"Tangerine Dreams: Guide to Shoujo Manga and Anime" April 14, 2005. http://tangerine.astraldream.net/tokyopop.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>//www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=465). Of 178 respondents, 142 ranked the manga as either Masterpiece, Excellent, or Very Good (http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1590). See also Mays, Jonathan. February 21, 2003. Review: Ghost in the Shell. http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/ghost-in-the-shell/dvd. Accessed 2007-12-16.</ref> Another success of the mid-1990s was Sailor Moon.<ref>Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 50, 110, 124, 128, 135.</ref><ref name="MixxHist">Arnold, Adam. 2000. "Full Circle: The Unofficial History of MixxZine." http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/00.06/feature/1/index.php3 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> By 1995-1998, the Sailor Moon manga had been exported to over 23 countries, including China, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, most of Europe and North America.<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p. 95.</ref> In 1998, Mixx Entertainment-TokyoPop issued US manga book versions of Sailor Moon and CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth.<ref name="MSU">For the date and identification of the publisher as Mixx, see library records at http://www.lib.msu.edu/comics/rri/mrri/mixi.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> In 1996, Mixx Entertainment founded TokyoPop to publish manga in trade paperbacks and, like Viz, began aggressive marketing of manga to both young male and young female demographics.<ref name="Thompson2" /><ref name="MixxHist2">"Tangerine Dreams: Guide to Shoujo Manga and Anime" April 14, 2005. http://tangerine.astraldream.net/tokyopop.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

www.animecastle.com/c-18291-graphic-novels-manga.aspx) This list contains some Korean manga and some OEL manga. The second source is Anime News Network, which lists manga publishers plus titles they have published. The total for US manga publishers comes to 1290 by actual count, including some Korean and OEL manga.(http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/company.php) Anime Castle lists another 91 adult graphic novel manga titles.(http://www.animecastle.com/c-18307-mature-adult-Graphic-novels.aspx) Websites accessed December 16-17, 2007.</ref> Simultaneously, mainstream US media began to discuss manga, with articles in the New York Times,<ref name="Glazer">Glazer, Sarah. 2005. "Manga for Girls." The New York Times, September 18. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/18/books/review/18glazer.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Time Magazine,<ref name="Coco">Masters, Coco. 2006. "America is Drawn to Manga." Time Magazine, Thursday, Aug. 10.</ref> the Wall Street Journal,<ref name="WSJ">Bosker, Bianca. 2007. "Manga Mania." Wall Street Journal, Aug. 31. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118851157811713921.html?mod=googlenews_wsj Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Wired Magazine.<ref name="wired" /> As of the end of 2007, manga is a major component of the US comics market.//www.animecastle.com/c-18291-graphic-novels-manga.aspx) This list contains some Korean manga and some OEL manga. The second source is Anime News Network, which lists manga publishers plus titles they have published. The total for US manga publishers comes to 1290 by actual count, including some Korean and OEL manga.(http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/company.php) Anime Castle lists another 91 adult graphic novel manga titles.(http://www.animecastle.com/c-18307-mature-adult-Graphic-novels.aspx) Websites accessed December 16-17, 2007.</ref> Simultaneously, mainstream US media began to discuss manga, with articles in the New York Times,<ref name="Glazer">Glazer, Sarah. 2005. "Manga for Girls." The New York Times, September 18. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/18/books/review/18glazer.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Time Magazine,<ref name="Coco">Masters, Coco. 2006. "America is Drawn to Manga." Time Magazine, Thursday, Aug. 10.</ref> the Wall Street Journal,<ref name="WSJ">Bosker, Bianca. 2007. "Manga Mania." Wall Street Journal, Aug. 31. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118851157811713921.html?mod=googlenews_wsj Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Wired Magazine.<ref name="wired" /> As of the end of 2007, manga is a major component of the US comics market.

Europe and the UK

www.bande-dessinee.org/ Accessed 2007-12-19</ref> In France, imported manga has easily been assimilated into high art traditions. For example, Volumes 6 and 7 of Yu Aida's Gunslinger Girl center on a cyborg girl, a former ballet dancer named Petruchka. The Asuka edition of Volume 7 contains an essay about the ballet Petruchka by Russian composer Igor Stravinsky and first performed in Paris in 1911.<ref>Massé, Rodolphe. 2006. "La musique dans Gunslinger Girl." In Gunslinger Girl, Volume 7, pp. 178-179. Paris: Asuka Éditions.</ref> However, Francophone readership of manga is not limited to an artistic elite. Instead, beginning in the mid-1990s,<ref name="mahousu">http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> manga has proven very popular to a wide readership, accounting for about one-third of comics sales in France since 2004.<ref name="mahousu"><ref name="mangaFr">http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2004-02-04/manga-mania-in-france Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="cafe1">http://www.cafebabel.com/en/dossierprintversion.asp?Id=362 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> European publishers marketing manga translated into French include Asuka,<ref name="Asuka">http://www.asuka.fr/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Casterman,<ref name="Cas">http://bd.casterman.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Kana,<ref name="Kana1">Kana is an imprint of Dargaud-Lombard. http://www.mangakana.com/main.cfm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Kana2">http://www.mangakana.com/Univers.Series.cfm?Main=1 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Pika,<ref name="Pika">http://www.pika.fr/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> among others.<ref name="mahousu" /><ref name="CaList"> http://www.protoculture.ca/Catalog/mangaf.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> European publishers also translate manga into German,<ref name="Carlsen">http://www.carlsen.de/web/manga/index Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Egmont">http://www.manganet.de/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Italian,<ref name="Panini">Planet Manga, an imprint of Panini; http://www.paninicomics.it/Titolo.jsp Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Star">http://www.starcomics.com/uscite.php?tipo=manga Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Spanish,<ref name="DeAgo">http://www.planetadeagostinicomics.com/manga.asp Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Pon">http://www.ponentmon.com/new_pages/english/princ.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Dutch,<ref name="Holland1">Wolf, T. 2006 (March 8). "Anime and Manga players in the Dutch market." http://dutch-anime-manga.blogspot.com/2006/03/anime-and-manga-players-in-dutch.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and other languages.<ref name="Danish">For example, Danish: http://www.mangismo.com/dk/default.asp?page=serier Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Manga publishers based in the United Kingdom include Orionbooks/Gollancz<ref name="OB">http://www.orionbooks.co.uk/browse-list-Manga/Manga-Books-and-Authors.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Titan Books.<ref name="Titan1">http://forums.animeuknews.net/viewtopic.php?t=6282 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Titan2">http://www.uksfbooknews.net/2007/03/28/new-manga-range-from-titan-books-launching-in-april/print/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> US manga publishers have a strong marketing presence in the UK, e.g., the Tanoshimi line from Random House.<ref name="Tano">http://www.randomhouse.co.uk/tanoshimi/catalogue.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>//www.bande-dessinee.org/ Accessed 2007-12-19</ref> In France, imported manga has easily been assimilated into high art traditions. For example, Volumes 6 and 7 of Yu Aida's Gunslinger Girl center on a cyborg girl, a former ballet dancer named Petruchka. The Asuka edition of Volume 7 contains an essay about the ballet Petruchka by Russian composer Igor Stravinsky and first performed in Paris in 1911.<ref>Massé, Rodolphe. 2006. "La musique dans Gunslinger Girl." In Gunslinger Girl, Volume 7, pp. 178-179. Paris: Asuka Éditions.</ref> However, Francophone readership of manga is not limited to an artistic elite. Instead, beginning in the mid-1990s,<ref name="mahousu">http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> manga has proven very popular to a wide readership, accounting for about one-third of comics sales in France since 2004.<ref name="mahousu"><ref name="mangaFr">http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2004-02-04/manga-mania-in-france Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="cafe1">http://www.cafebabel.com/en/dossierprintversion.asp?Id=362 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> European publishers marketing manga translated into French include Asuka,<ref name="Asuka">http://www.asuka.fr/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Casterman,<ref name="Cas">http://bd.casterman.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Kana,<ref name="Kana1">Kana is an imprint of Dargaud-Lombard. http://www.mangakana.com/main.cfm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Kana2">http://www.mangakana.com/Univers.Series.cfm?Main=1 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Pika,<ref name="Pika">http://www.pika.fr/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> among others.<ref name="mahousu" /><ref name="CaList"> http://www.protoculture.ca/Catalog/mangaf.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> European publishers also translate manga into German,<ref name="Carlsen">http://www.carlsen.de/web/manga/index Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Egmont">http://www.manganet.de/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Italian,<ref name="Panini">Planet Manga, an imprint of Panini; http://www.paninicomics.it/Titolo.jsp Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Star">http://www.starcomics.com/uscite.php?tipo=manga Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Spanish,<ref name="DeAgo">http://www.planetadeagostinicomics.com/manga.asp Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Pon">http://www.ponentmon.com/new_pages/english/princ.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Dutch,<ref name="Holland1">Wolf, T. 2006 (March 8). "Anime and Manga players in the Dutch market." http://dutch-anime-manga.blogspot.com/2006/03/anime-and-manga-players-in-dutch.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and other languages.<ref name="Danish">For example, Danish: http://www.mangismo.com/dk/default.asp?page=serier Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Manga publishers based in the United Kingdom include Orionbooks/Gollancz<ref name="OB">http://www.orionbooks.co.uk/browse-list-Manga/Manga-Books-and-Authors.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Titan Books.<ref name="Titan1">http://forums.animeuknews.net/viewtopic.php?t=6282 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Titan2">http://www.uksfbooknews.net/2007/03/28/new-manga-range-from-titan-books-launching-in-april/print/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> US manga publishers have a strong marketing presence in the UK, e.g., the Tanoshimi line from Random House.<ref name="Tano">http://www.randomhouse.co.uk/tanoshimi/catalogue.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

Aesthetic influences on cartooning in the US and France

www.grovel.org.uk/ronin/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> William Warren and Toren Smith's 1988 The Dirty Pair,<ref name="DirtyPair">http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/the-dirty-pair/run-from-the-future Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Ben Dunn's 1993 Ninja High School,<ref name="Dunn1">http://bendunnmangaartist.100megs24.com/index.php?id=home&content=nhs/nhs Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Dunn2>http://www.atomicavenue.com/atomic/TitleDetail.aspx?TitleID=177 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Stan Sakai's 1984 Usagi Yojimbo,<ref name="Uyo">http://www.usagiyojimbo.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Manga Shi 2000 from Crusade Comics (1997).<ref name="MangaShi1"> Mishkin, Orfalas, and Asencio 1997 "Manga Shi 2000." Rego Park, NY: Crusade Comics. The artists are not further identified.</ref><ref name="MangaShi2"> http://www.crusadefinearts.com/news/20051130definitiveshi.php. The artwork is attributed to William Tucci. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>//www.grovel.org.uk/ronin/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> William Warren and Toren Smith's 1988 The Dirty Pair,<ref name="DirtyPair">http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/the-dirty-pair/run-from-the-future Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Ben Dunn's 1993 Ninja High School,<ref name="Dunn1">http://bendunnmangaartist.100megs24.com/index.php?id=home&content=nhs/nhs Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Dunn2>http://www.atomicavenue.com/atomic/TitleDetail.aspx?TitleID=177 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Stan Sakai's 1984 Usagi Yojimbo,<ref name="Uyo">http://www.usagiyojimbo.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Manga Shi 2000 from Crusade Comics (1997).<ref name="MangaShi1"> Mishkin, Orfalas, and Asencio 1997 "Manga Shi 2000." Rego Park, NY: Crusade Comics. The artists are not further identified.</ref><ref name="MangaShi2"> http://www.crusadefinearts.com/news/20051130definitiveshi.php. The artwork is attributed to William Tucci. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2007/9/23/lifebookshelf/18898783&sec=lifebookshelf Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> In 2002, I.C. Entertainment, formerly Studio Ironcat and now out of business, launched a series of manga by US artists called Amerimanga.<ref name="Amerimanga">Anime News Network. November 11, 2002. "I.C. Entertainment (formerly Ironcat) to launch anthology of Manga by American artists". http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2002-11-27/i.c-promotes-amerimanga Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Seven Seas Entertainment followed suit with World Manga.<ref name=SSE1>Anime News Network. May 10, 2006. "Correction: World Manga". http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-10/correction-world-manga. Seven Seas claimed to have coined the term in 2004; Forbes, Jake. (No date). "What is World Manga?" http://www.gomanga.com/news/features_gomanga_002.php Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Simultaneously, TokyoPop introduced original English-language manga (OEL manga) later renamed Global Manga.<ref name TPopOEL">Anime News Network. May 5, 2006. "Tokyopop To Move Away from OEL and World Manga Labels." http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-05/tokyopop-to-move-away-from-oel-and-world-manga-labels. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="GravettOEL">Gravett, Paul. 2006. "ORIGINAL MANGA: MANGA NOT 'MADE IN JAPAN'." http://www.paulgravett.com/articles/092_originalmanga/092_originalmanga.htm. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> TokyoPop is currently the largest US publisher of original English language manga.<ref name="Kiley">ICv2. September 7, 2007. Interview with Tokyopop's Mike Kiley, http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11249.html (part1), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11250.html (part2), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11251.html (part3). Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Robofish">Robofish. (no date). "Manga, American-style." http://www.tokyopop.com/Robofish/insidetp/688417.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Reid">Reid, Calvin. March 28, 2006. HarperCollins, "Tokyopop Ink Manga Deal." http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6319467.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>//thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2007/9/23/lifebookshelf/18898783&sec=lifebookshelf Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> In 2002, I.C. Entertainment, formerly Studio Ironcat and now out of business, launched a series of manga by US artists called Amerimanga.<ref name="Amerimanga">Anime News Network. November 11, 2002. "I.C. Entertainment (formerly Ironcat) to launch anthology of Manga by American artists". http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2002-11-27/i.c-promotes-amerimanga Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Seven Seas Entertainment followed suit with World Manga.<ref name=SSE1>Anime News Network. May 10, 2006. "Correction: World Manga". http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-10/correction-world-manga. Seven Seas claimed to have coined the term in 2004; Forbes, Jake. (No date). "What is World Manga?" http://www.gomanga.com/news/features_gomanga_002.php Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Simultaneously, TokyoPop introduced original English-language manga (OEL manga) later renamed Global Manga.<ref name TPopOEL">Anime News Network. May 5, 2006. "Tokyopop To Move Away from OEL and World Manga Labels." http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-05/tokyopop-to-move-away-from-oel-and-world-manga-labels. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="GravettOEL">Gravett, Paul. 2006. "ORIGINAL MANGA: MANGA NOT 'MADE IN JAPAN'." http://www.paulgravett.com/articles/092_originalmanga/092_originalmanga.htm. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> TokyoPop is currently the largest US publisher of original English language manga.<ref name="Kiley">ICv2. September 7, 2007. Interview with Tokyopop's Mike Kiley, http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11249.html (part1), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11250.html (part2), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11251.html (part3). Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Robofish">Robofish. (no date). "Manga, American-style." http://www.tokyopop.com/Robofish/insidetp/688417.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Reid">Reid, Calvin. March 28, 2006. HarperCollins, "Tokyopop Ink Manga Deal." http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6319467.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

www.boilet.net/yukiko/yukiko.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Boilet has worked in France and in Japan, sometimes collaborating with Japanese artists.<ref name="Boilet1">Boilet, Frédéric. 2001. "Yukiko's Spinach." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933-0934-6.</ref><ref name="Boilet2">Boilet, Frédéric and Kan Takahama. 2004. "Mariko Parade." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933409-1-X.</ref> A Francophone Canadian example is the Montréal, Québec based artists' group MUSEBasement, which draws manga-style artwork.<ref name="Prevost">http://www.musebasement.com/about.php Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>//www.boilet.net/yukiko/yukiko.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Boilet has worked in France and in Japan, sometimes collaborating with Japanese artists.<ref name="Boilet1">Boilet, Frédéric. 2001. "Yukiko's Spinach." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933-0934-6.</ref><ref name="Boilet2">Boilet, Frédéric and Kan Takahama. 2004. "Mariko Parade." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933409-1-X.</ref> A Francophone Canadian example is the Montréal, Québec based artists' group MUSEBasement, which draws manga-style artwork.<ref name="Prevost">http://www.musebasement.com/about.php Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

International Manga Award

www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2007-05-22/international-manga-award Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="IntlAward">http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2007/6/1174276_828.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>//www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2007-05-22/international-manga-award Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="IntlAward">http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2007/6/1174276_828.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

References

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Catégories de la page: Artists' books | Fiction | Japanese words and phrases | Manga | Young adult fiction

Manga

Un article de Vev.

Version du 24 décembre 2007 à 17:34

Sommaire

Etymology

History and characteristics

Overview of ideas

After World War II

Shōjo manga

Shōjo manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to today

Publications

Magazines

Dōjinshi

Gekiga

International markets

United States

Europe and the UK

Aesthetic influences on cartooning in the US and France

International Manga Award

See also

References

Views

Outils personnels

sites

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