Mars

Un article de Vev.

Modèle:For Modèle:Featured article Modèle:Infobox Planet Modèle:SpecialCharsNote Mars (Modèle:PronEng) is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. It is also referred to as the "Red Planet" because of its reddish appearance as seen from Earth.

Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the volcanoes, valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth. It is the site of Olympus Mons, the highest known mountain in the solar system, and of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon. In addition to its geographical features, Mars’ rotational period and seasonal cycles are likewise similar to those of Earth.

Until the first flyby of Mars by Mariner 4 in 1965, it was speculated that there might be liquid water on the planet's surface. This was based on observations of periodic variations in light and dark patches, particularly in the polar latitudes, which looked like seas and continents, while long, dark striations were interpreted by some observers as irrigation channels for liquid water. These straight line features were later proven not to exist and were instead explained as optical illusions. Still, of all the planets in our solar system other than Earth, Mars is the most likely to harbor liquid water, and perhaps life.

Mars is currently host to three functional orbiting spacecraft: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. This is more than any planet except Earth. The surface is also home to the two Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity). Geological evidence gathered by these and preceding missions suggests that Mars previously had large-scale water coverage, while observations also indicate that small geyser-like water flows have occurred in recent years.<ref name="marswater">Modèle:Citeweb </ref> Observations by NASA's Mars Global Surveyor show evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap have been receding.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Webster, G.; Beasley, D.
   
 

     (September 20, 2005)
   
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. NASA 
   

. Retrieved on 2007-02-26. </ref>

Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Martian Trojan asteroid. Mars can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.9<ref name="nssdc" />, a brightness surpassed only by Venus, the Moon, and the Sun, though most of the time Jupiter will appear brighter to the naked eye than Mars.

Sommaire 1 Physical characteristics 1.1 Geology 1.2 Hydrology 1.3 Atmosphere 1.4 Climate 2 Orbit and rotation 3 Moons 4 Life 5 Exploration 5.1 Past missions 5.2 Current missions 5.3 Future missions 5.4 Astronomy on Mars 6 Viewing 6.1 2003 closest approach 6.2 2007-2008 6.3 Historical observations 7 Mars in culture 7.1 Historical connections 7.2 Intelligent "Martians" 7.3 In fiction 7.4 In music 8 Possible asteroid impact 9 See also 10 References and Notes 11 External links

Physical characteristics

Mars has approximately half the radius of Earth and only one-tenth the mass, being less dense, but its surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land.<ref name="nssdc">You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  David R. Williams
   
 

     (September 1, 2004 adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y//nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html)
   
.  
. National Space Science Data Center
. NASA 
   

. Retrieved on 2006-06-24. </ref> While Mars is larger and more massive than Mercury, Mercury has a higher density. This results in a slightly stronger gravitational force at Mercury's surface. The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide, more commonly known as hematite, or rust.<ref name="rust">You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Peplow , Mark 
     
 

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. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. </ref>

Geology

Main article: Geology of Mars

erc.arc.nasa.gov/MarsVolc/basalt.htm|title=NASA Mars Page|work=Volcanology of Mars|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>//erc.arc.nasa.gov/MarsVolc/basalt.htm|title=NASA Mars Page|work=Volcanology of Mars|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>

Although Mars has no intrinsic magnetic field, observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized and that alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred. This paleomagnetism of magnetically-susceptible minerals has properties that are very similar to the alternating bands found on the ocean floors of Earth. One theory, published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of the Mars Global Surveyor), is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars 4 billion years ago, before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and caused the planet's magnetic field to fade away.<ref name="plates">You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Goddard Space Flight Center
     
 

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. Retrieved on 2006-03-17. </ref>

www.anl.gov/Media_Center/News/2003/030926mars.htm |title = APS X-rays reveal secrets of Mars' core | publisher = Argonne National Laboratory | date = 2003-09-26 | accessdate = 2006-07-01 | language = English }}</ref> Earth's crust, averaging 40 km, is only a third as thick as Mars’ crust relative to the sizes of the two planets.//www.anl.gov/Media_Center/News/2003/030926mars.htm |title = APS X-rays reveal secrets of Mars' core | publisher = Argonne National Laboratory | date = 2003-09-26 | accessdate = 2006-07-01 | language = English }}</ref> Earth's crust, averaging 40 km, is only a third as thick as Mars’ crust relative to the sizes of the two planets.

The geological history of Mars can be split into many epochs, but the following are the three main ones:

• Noachian epoch (named after Noachis Terra): Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars, 3.8 billion years ago to 3.5 billion years ago. Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge volcanic upland is thought to have formed during this period, with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the epoch.
• Hesperian epoch (named after Hesperia Planum): 3.5 billion years ago to 1.8 billion years ago. The Hesperian epoch is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains.
• Amazonian epoch (named after Amazonis Planitia): 1.8 billion years ago to present. Amazonian regions have few meteorite impact craters but are otherwise quite varied. Olympus Mons formed during this period along with lava flows elsewhere on Mars.

Hydrology

Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure, except at the lowest elevations for short periods<ref name="h" /><ref>«  »</ref> The caves, named Dena, Chloe, Wendy, Annie, Abbey, Nikki and Jeanne after loved ones of their discoverers, are collectively known as the "seven sisters."<ref> 'Cave entrances' spotted on Mars

. NAU

 

. Retrieved on 2007-05-28. </ref> Cave entrances measure from 100 m to 252 m wide and they are believed to be at least 73 m to 96 m deep. Because light does not reach the floor of most of the caves, it is likely that they extend much deeper than these lower estimates and widen below the surface. Dena is the only exception; its floor is visible and was measured to be 130 m deep. The interiors of these caverns may be protected from micrometeoroids, UV radiation, solar flares and high energy particles that bombard the planet's surface.<ref> Researchers find possible caves on Mars

. Paul Rincon of BBC News

 

. Retrieved on 2007-05-28. </ref> Some researchers have suggested that this protection makes the caves good candidates for future efforts to find liquid water and signs of life.

Mars has two permanent polar ice caps: the northern one at Planum Boreum and the southern one at Planum Australe.

Atmosphere

Main article: Atmosphere of Mars

See also: Extraterrestrial skies: Mars

Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, keeping the atmosphere thinner than it would otherwise be by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected these ionised atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars.<ref name="swind">You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Philips , Tony 
     
 

       (2001
solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric//science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast31jan_1.htm)
     
   
 
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. Science@NASA 
   

. Retrieved on 2006-10-08. </ref><ref name="swind2"> Modèle:Cite journal</ref> The atmosphere of Mars is now relatively thin. Atmospheric pressure on the surface varies from around 30 Pa (0.03 kPa) on Olympus Mons to over 1155 Pa (1.155 kPa) in the depths of Hellas Planitia, with a mean surface level pressure of 600 Pa (0.6 kPa). This is less than 1% of the surface pressure on Earth (101.3 kPa). Mars's mean surface pressure equals the pressure found 35 km above the Earth's surface. The scale height of the atmosphere, about 11 km, is higher than Earth's (6 km) due to the lower gravity.

The atmosphere on Mars consists of 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and contains traces of oxygen and water.<ref name="nssdc" /> The atmosphere is quite dusty, containing particulates about 1.5 µm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface.<ref name="dusty"> Modèle:Cite journal</ref>

Several researchers claim to have detected methane in the Martian atmosphere with a concentration of about 10 ppb by volume.<ref name="methane-me"> Modèle:Cite journal </ref><ref name="methane">"

   Mars Express confirms methane in the Martian atmosphere
   
 " , ESA
solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric//www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars_Express/SEMZ0B57ESD_0.html
  , March 30, 2004
 
  . Retrieved on 2006-03-17
 . </ref>

Since methane is an unstable gas that is broken down by ultraviolet radiation, typically lasting about 340 years in the Martian atmosphere,<ref>Modèle:Cite journal </ref> its presence would indicate a current or recent source of the gas on the planet. Volcanic activity, cometary impacts, and the presence of methanogenic microbial life forms are among possible sources. It was recently pointed out that methane could also be produced by a non-biological process called serpentinization<ref> There are many serpentinization reactions. Olivine is a solid solution between forsterite and fayalite whose general formula is <math>(Fe,Mg)_2SiO_4</math>. The reaction producing methane from olivine can be written (in balanced form) as: Forsterite + Fayalite + Water + Carbonic acid → Serpentine + Magnetite + Methane , or: <math>18 Mg_2SiO_4 + 6 Fe_2SiO_4 + 26 H_2O + CO_2</math> → <math>12 Mg_3Si_2O_5(OH)_4 + 4 Fe_3O_4 + CH_4</math> </ref> involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars.<ref name="olivine"> Modèle:Cite journal </ref>

During a pole's winter, it lies in continuous darkness, chilling the surface and causing 25–30% of the atmosphere to condense out into thick slabs of CO₂ ice (dry ice).<ref> Modèle:Cite journal</ref> When the poles are again exposed to sunlight, the frozen CO₂ sublimes, creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h. These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor, giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds. Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004.<ref name="clouds">"

   Mars Rovers Spot Water-Clue Mineral, Frost, Clouds
solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric//marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20041213a.html
   
 " , NASA
  , Dec. 13, 2004
 
  . Retrieved on 2006-03-17
 . </ref>

Climate

Main article: Climate of Mars

www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000JE001360.shtml |title=On the possibility of liquid water on present-day Mars |accessdate=2006-10-06 |author=Haberle, R. M et al |year=2001 | publisher=J. Geophys. Res.}} 106(E10), 23,317–23,326. (abstract, full paper requires purchase or AGU subscription)</ref> The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil.<ref>Modèle:Cite web//www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000JE001360.shtml 106(E10), 23,317–23,326. (abstract, full paper requires purchase or AGU subscription)</ref> The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

. MGCM Press release
. NASA
solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric//www-mgcm.arc.nasa.gov/mgcm/HTML/WEATHER/surface.html  
 

 

. Retrieved on 2007-02-25. </ref>

If Mars had an Earth-like orbit, its seasons would be similar to Earth's because its axial tilt is similar to Earth's. However, the comparatively large eccentricity of the Martian orbit has a significant effect. Mars is near perihelion when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the north, and near aphelion when it is winter in the southern hemisphere and summer in the north. As a result, the seasons in the southern hemisphere are more extreme and the seasons in the northern are milder than would otherwise be the case. The summer temperatures in the south can be up to 30 K (54 °F) warmer than the equivalent summer temperatures in the north.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Goodman , Jason C 
     
 

     (September 22, 1997 solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric//www.mit.edu/people/goodmanj/terraforming/terraforming.html)
   
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. MIT 
   

. Retrieved on 2007-02-26. </ref>

Mars also has the largest dust storms in the Solar System. These can vary from a storm over a small area, to gigantic storms that cover the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun, and have been shown to increase the global temperature.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Philips , Tony 
     
 

     (July 16, 2001adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y//science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast16jul_1.htm)
   
.  
. Science @ NASA

. Retrieved on 2006-06-07. </ref>

The polar caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice. However, there is dry ice present on their surfaces. Frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice) accumulates as a thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only, while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about eight metres thick.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Darling , David 
     
 

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. Retrieved on 2007-02-26. </ref> The northern polar cap has a diameter of approximately 1,000 kilometres during the northern Mars summer,<ref>

You must specify  title =  and url =  when using {{cite web}}.

. Mira.org
solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric//www.mira.org/fts0/planets/097/text/txt002x.htm  
 

 

. Retrieved on 2007-02-26. </ref> and contains about 1.6 million cubic kilometres of ice, which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 kilometres thick.<ref name="brown">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> (This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic kilometres for the Greenland ice sheet.) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km.<ref name="nasa">You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Phillips , Dr. Tony 
     
 

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. Retrieved on 2007-02-26. </ref> The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic kilometres.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> Both polar caps show spiral troughs, which are believed to form as a result of differential solar heating, coupled with the sublimation of ice and condensation of water vapor.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref><ref> MarsToday.Com

. Mars Polar Cap Mysery Solved

 

. Retrieved on 2007-01-23. </ref> Both polar caps shrink and regrow following the temperature fluctuation of the Martian seasons.

Orbit and rotation

main.chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/MarsDist.html |title=Mars' Orbital eccentricty over time |work=Solex |publisher=Universita' degli Studi di Napoli Federico II |year=2003 |accessdate=2007-08-02}}</ref> Although Mars takes twice as long as the Earth to orbit the Sun, its main cycle of eccentricity variation is slightly shorter than Earth's, with cycles taking 95,000 Earth years. However, there is a much longer cycle of eccentricity with a period of several million Earth years, and this overshadows the 95,000 year cycle in the eccentricity graph of the past three million years. Presently, Mars is approaching an eccentricity maximum, which will be reached in a thousand years.//main.chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/MarsDist.html |title=Mars' Orbital eccentricty over time |work=Solex |publisher=Universita' degli Studi di Napoli Federico II |year=2003 |accessdate=2007-08-02}}</ref> Although Mars takes twice as long as the Earth to orbit the Sun, its main cycle of eccentricity variation is slightly shorter than Earth's, with cycles taking 95,000 Earth years. However, there is a much longer cycle of eccentricity with a period of several million Earth years, and this overshadows the 95,000 year cycle in the eccentricity graph of the past three million years. Presently, Mars is approaching an eccentricity maximum, which will be reached in a thousand years.

Mars’ average distance from the Sun is roughly 230 million km (1.5 AU) and its orbital period is 687 (Earth) days. The solar day (or sol) on Mars is only slightly longer than an Earth day: 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds. A Martian year is equal to 1.8809 Earth years, or 1 year, 320 days, and 18.2 hours.

Mars's axial tilt is 25.19 degrees, which is similar to the axial tilt of the Earth. As a result, Mars has seasons like the Earth, though on Mars they are about twice as long given its longer year. Mars passed its aphelion in June 2006 and is now passing its perihelion since June 2007.

Image:ThePlanets Orbits Ceres Mars PolarView.svg Image:ThePlanets Orbits Ceres Mars.svg The image to the left shows a comparison between Mars and Ceres, a dwarf planet in the Asteroid Belt, as seen from the ecliptic pole, while the image to the right is as seen from the ascending node. The segments of orbits below the ecliptic are plotted in darker colors. The perihelia (q) and aphelia (Q) are labelled with the date of the nearest passage.

Moons

Main article: Mars's natural satellites

sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31031|title=Close Inspection for Phobos|work=ESA website|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>//sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31031|title=Close Inspection for Phobos|work=ESA website|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>

www.theoi.com/Olympios/AresAttendants.html|title=ARES ATTENDANTS: DEIMOS & PHOBOS|work=Greek Mythology|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>//www.theoi.com/Olympios/AresAttendants.html|title=ARES ATTENDANTS: DEIMOS & PHOBOS|work=Greek Mythology|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>

From the surface of Mars, the motions of Phobos and Deimos appear very different from that of our own moon. Phobos rises in the west, sets in the east, and rises again in just 11 hours. Deimos, being only just outside synchronous orbit—where the orbital period would match the planet's period of rotation—rises as expected in the east but very slowly. Despite the 30 hour orbit of Deimos, it takes 2.7 days to set in the west as it slowly falls behind the rotation of Mars, then just as long again to rise.<ref name="phobos.html">You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Arnett, Bill adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y//www.nineplanets.org/phobos.html
   
 

     (November 20, 2004)
   
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. nineplanets

. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. </ref>

Because Phobos' orbit is below synchronous altitude, the tidal forces from the planet Mars are gradually lowering its orbit. In about 50 million years it will either crash into Mars’ surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet.<ref name="phobos.html" />

calspace.ucsd.edu/Mars99/docs/library/science/geological_history/moons1.html |title=Geological History: Moons of Mars |publisher=CalSpace |first=Scott |last=Ellis |accessdate=2007-08-02}}</ref>//calspace.ucsd.edu/Mars99/docs/library/science/geological_history/moons1.html |title=Geological History: Moons of Mars |publisher=CalSpace |first=Scott |last=Ellis |accessdate=2007-08-02}}</ref>

Life

Main article: Life on Mars

The current understanding of planetary habitability—the ability of a world to develop and sustain life—favors planets that have liquid water on their surface. This requires that the orbit of a planet lie within a habitable zone, which for the Sun is currently occupied by Earth. Mars orbits half an astronomical unit beyond this zone and this, along with the planet's thin atmosphere, causes water to freeze on its surface. The past flow of liquid water, however, demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability.

The lack of a magnetosphere and extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a greater challenge: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, poor insulation against bombardment and the solar wind, and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimates to a gaseous state). Mars is also nearly, or perhaps totally, geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet.<ref> Modèle:Cite book </ref>

Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today, but whether living organisms ever existed there is still unclear. The Viking probes of the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites, and had some apparently positive results, including a temporary increase of CO₂ production on exposure to water and nutrients. However this sign of life was later disputed by many scientists, resulting in a continuing debate, with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life. A re-analysis of the now 30-year-old Viking data, in light of modern knowledge of extremophile forms of life, has suggested that the Viking tests were also not sophisticated enough to detect these forms of life. The tests may even have killed a (hypothetical) life form.<ref>"

   New Analysis of Viking Mission Results Indicates Presence of Life on Mars
   
 " , Physorg.com
  , January 7, 2007 adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y//www.physorg.com/news87401064.html
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-03-02
 . </ref>

At the Johnson space center lab organic compounds have been found in the meteorite ALH84001, which is supposed to have come from Mars. They concluded that these were deposited by primitive life forms extant on Mars before the meteorite was blasted into space by a meteor strike and sent on a 15 million-year voyage to Earth. Also, small quantities of methane and formaldehyde recently detected by Mars orbiters are both claimed to be hints for life, as these particles would quickly break down in the Martian atmosphere.<ref> Modèle:Cite journal </ref><ref name="form">"

   Formaldehyde claim inflames Martian debate
solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric//www.nature.com/news/2005/050221/full/050221-15.html
   
 " , Nature
  , February 25, 2005
 
  . Retrieved on 2006-03-19
 . </ref> It is possible that these compounds may be replenished by volcanic or geological means such as serpentinization.<ref name="olivine" />

Exploration

Main article: Exploration of Mars

Dozens of spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have been sent to Mars by the Soviet Union, the United States, Europe, and Japan to study the planet's surface, climate, and geology.

Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars have failed in one manner or another before completing or even beginning their missions. While this high failure rate can be ascribed to technical problems, enough have either failed or lost communications for causes unknown for some to search for other explanations. Examples include an Earth-Mars "Bermuda Triangle", a Mars Curse, or even the long-standing NASA in-joke, the "Great Galactic Ghoul" that feeds on Martian spacecraft.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Dinerman , Taylor adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y//www.thespacereview.com/article/232/1 
     
 

     (September 27, 2004)
   
.  
. The space review

. Retrieved on 2007-03-27. </ref>

Past missions

burro.astr.cwru.edu/stu/20th_far_mars.html|title=Other Mars Missions|work=Journey through the galaxy|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> and also mapped the surface of Mars so well that the images are still sometimes used to this day. The Soviet probes Phobos 1 and 2 were sent to Mars in 1988 to study Mars and its two moons, unfortunately Phobos 1 lost contact on the way to Mars, and Phobos 2, while successfully photographing Mars and Phobos, failed just before it was set to release two landers on Phobos's surface.//burro.astr.cwru.edu/stu/20th_far_mars.html|title=Other Mars Missions|work=Journey through the galaxy|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> and also mapped the surface of Mars so well that the images are still sometimes used to this day. The Soviet probes Phobos 1 and 2 were sent to Mars in 1988 to study Mars and its two moons, unfortunately Phobos 1 lost contact on the way to Mars, and Phobos 2, while successfully photographing Mars and Phobos, failed just before it was set to release two landers on Phobos's surface.

www.cnn.com/TECH/9706/pathfinder/surveyor/|title=Mars Global Surveyor|work=CNN- Destination Mars|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>//www.cnn.com/TECH/9706/pathfinder/surveyor/|title=Mars Global Surveyor|work=CNN- Destination Mars|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>

Current missions

In 2001 NASA launched the successful Mars Odyssey orbiter, which is still in orbit as of June 2007. Odyssey's Gamma Ray Spectrometer detected significant amounts of hydrogen in the upper metre or so of Mars's regolith. This hydrogen is thought to be contained in large deposits of water ice.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Britt , Robert adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y//www.space.com/missionlaunches/odyssey_update_030314.html 
     
 

     (March 14, 2003)
   
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. Space.com

. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. </ref>

In 2003, the ESA launched the Mars Express craft, consisting of the Mars Express Orbiter and the lander Beagle 2. Beagle 2 failed during descent and was declared lost in early February 2004.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Wardell , Jane adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y//www.space.com/missionlaunches/beagle_update_040126.html 
     
 

     (January 26, 2004)
   
.  
. Space.com

. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. </ref> In early 2004 the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer team announced it had detected methane in the Martian atmosphere. ESA announced in June 2006 the discovery of aurorae on Mars.<ref name="aurora">You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Bertaux et al. , Jean-Loup adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y//www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7043/abs/nature03603.html 
     
 

     (June 9, 2005)
   
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. Nature Magazine

. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. </ref>

marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/science/|title=Mars Exploration Rovers- Science|work=NASA MER website|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>//marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/science/|title=Mars Exploration Rovers- Science|work=NASA MER website|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>

On August 12, 2005 the NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter probe was launched toward the planet, arriving in orbit on March 10, 2006 to conduct a two-year science survey. The orbiter will map the Martian terrain and weather to find suitable landing sites for upcoming lander missions. It also contains an improved telecommunications link to Earth, with more bandwidth than all previous missions combined.

Future missions

www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/phoenix_water.html|title=Phoenix: The Search for Water|work=NASA website|accessdate=2007-03-03}}</ref>//www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/phoenix_water.html|title=Phoenix: The Search for Water|work=NASA website|accessdate=2007-03-03}}</ref>

mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/overview/|title=Mars Science Laboratory|work=NASA's MSL website|accessdate=2007-03-03}}</ref>//mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/overview/|title=Mars Science Laboratory|work=NASA's MSL website|accessdate=2007-03-03}}</ref>

www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Aurora/SEM1NVZKQAD_0.html/|title=ExoMars//www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Aurora/SEM1NVZKQAD_0.html/|title=ExoMars | work=ESA website|accessdate=2007-03-03}}</ref><ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Rincon , Paul 
     
 

     (November 10, 2006adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6133712.stm)
   
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. Retrieved on 2006-10-10. </ref>

www.space.com/news/bush_plan_faq_040115.html#whenmars|title=When do we get to Mars?|work=Space.com FAQ: Bush's New Space Vision |accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> NASA and Lockheed Martin have begun work on the Orion spacecraft, formerly the Crew Exploration Vehicle, which is currently scheduled to send a human expedition to Earth's moon by 2020 as a stepping stone to an expedition to Mars thereafter.//www.space.com/news/bush_plan_faq_040115.html#whenmars|title=When do we get to Mars?|work=Space.com FAQ: Bush's New Space Vision |accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> NASA and Lockheed Martin have begun work on the Orion spacecraft, formerly the Crew Exploration Vehicle, which is currently scheduled to send a human expedition to Earth's moon by 2020 as a stepping stone to an expedition to Mars thereafter.

www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Aurora/ESAONKTHN6D_0.html|title=Liftoff for Aurora: Europe’s first steps to Mars, the Moon and beyond//www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Aurora/ESAONKTHN6D_0.html|title=Liftoff for Aurora: Europe’s first steps to Mars, the Moon and beyond | accessdate=2007-03-03}}</ref> This will be preceded by successively larger probes, starting with the launch of the ExoMars probe and a Mars Sample Return Mission.

news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070924/ts_alt_afp/spaceconferenceindiausmars_070924135921 Yahoo.com, NASA aims to put man on Mars by 2037]</ref>//news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070924/ts_alt_afp/spaceconferenceindiausmars_070924135921 Yahoo.com, NASA aims to put man on Mars by 2037]</ref>

Astronomy on Mars

Main article: Astronomy on Mars

www.planetary.org/explore/topics/mars/deimos.html|title=Deimos|work=Planetary Societies's Explore the Cosmos|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>//www.planetary.org/explore/topics/mars/deimos.html|title=Deimos|work=Planetary Societies's Explore the Cosmos|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref>

There are also various phenomena well-known on Earth that have now been observed on Mars, such as meteors and auroras.<ref name="aurora">empty</ref> A transit of the Earth as seen from Mars will occur on November 10, 2084. There are also transits of Mercury and transits of Venus, and the moon Deimos is of sufficiently small angular diameter that its partial "eclipses" of the Sun are best considered transits (see Transit of Deimos from Mars).

Viewing

www.shallowsky.com/mars.html|title=Mars Observing FAQ |work=Shallow Sky|accessdate=2006-06-15}}</ref>//www.shallowsky.com/mars.html|title=Mars Observing FAQ |work=Shallow Sky|accessdate=2006-06-15}}</ref>

The point of Mars’ closest approach to the Earth is known as opposition. The length of time between successive oppositions, or the Synodic period, is 780 days. Because of the eccentricities of the orbits, the times of opposition and minimum distance can differ by up to 8.5 days. The minimum distance varies between about 55 and 100 million km due to the planets' elliptical orbits.<ref name="nssdc" /> The next Mars opposition will occur on December 24, 2007.

As Mars approaches opposition it begins a period of retrograde motion, which means it will appear to move backwards in a looping motion with respect to the background stars.

2003 closest approach

www.space.com/spacewatch/mars_10_closest_030822.html|title=NightSky Friday - Mars and Earth: The Top 10 Close Passes Since 3000 B.C.|work=Space.com|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> The orbital changes of Earth and Mars are making the approaches nearer: the 2003 record will be bettered 22 times by the year 4000.//www.space.com/spacewatch/mars_10_closest_030822.html|title=NightSky Friday - Mars and Earth: The Top 10 Close Passes Since 3000 B.C.|work=Space.com|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> The orbital changes of Earth and Mars are making the approaches nearer: the 2003 record will be bettered 22 times by the year 4000.

2007-2008

Retrograde motion began on November 16 2007 and will last through January 31 2008 with Mars appearing to move backwards through the sky from the constellation Gemini into Taurus.<ref> You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Beish , Jeffrey 
     
 

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Image:Mars path 2007.png This chart shows the path of Mars in the sky during the opposition of 2007. Each dot represents one day's motion. Mars shown on December 18 in Gemini, when it is closest to earth (0.59 AU distance, 15.9" visual diameter), 6 days before opposition on December 24.

Historical observations

The history of observations of Mars is marked by the oppositions of Mars, when the planet is closest to Earth and hence is most easily visible, which occur every couple of years. Even more notable are the perihelic oppositions of Mars which occur approximately every 15–17 years, and are distinguished because Mars is close to perihelion, making it even closer to Earth. Aristotle was among the first known writers to describe observations of Mars, noting that, as it passed behind the moon, it was farther away than was originally believed.

The only occultation of Mars by Venus observed was that of October 3, 1590, seen by M. Möstlin at Heidelberg.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>

In 1609, Mars was viewed by Galileo, who was first to see it via telescope.

By the 19th century, the resolution of telescopes reached a level sufficient for surface features to be identified. In September 1877, a perihelic opposition of Mars occurred on September 5. In that year, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli, then in Milan, used a 22 cm telescope to help produce the first detailed map of Mars. These maps notably contained features he called canali, which were later shown to be an optical illusion. These canali were supposedly long straight lines on the surface of Mars to which he gave names of famous rivers on Earth. His term was popularly mistranslated as canals.<ref> You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Snyder , Dave 
     
 

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Influenced by the observations the orientalist Percival Lowell founded an observatory which had a 300 and 450 mm telescope. The observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in 1894 and the following less favorable oppositions. He published several books on Mars and life on the planet, which had a great influence on the public. The canali were also found by other astronomers, like Perrotin and Thollon in Nice, using one of the largest telescopes of that time.

The seasonal changes (consisting of the diminishing of the polar caps and the dark areas formed during Martian summer) in combination with the canals lead to speculation about life on Mars, and it was a long held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation. The telescope never reached the resolution required to give proof to any speculations. However, as bigger telescopes were used, fewer long, straight canali were observed. During an observation in 1909 by Flammarion with a 840 mm telescope, irregular patterns were observed, but no canali were seen.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>

links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-8075%2819620406%293%3A136%3A3510%3C17%3AMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R|pages =17–26|accessdate=2007-02-26}}</ref>//links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-8075%2819620406%293%3A136%3A3510%3C17%3AMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R|pages =17–26|accessdate=2007-02-26}}</ref>

It was not until spacecraft visited the planet during NASA's Mariner missions in the 1960s that these myths were dispelled. The results of the Viking life-detection experiments started an intermission in which the hypothesis of a hostile, dead planet was generally accepted.

Some maps of Mars were made using the data from these missions, but it was not until the Mars Global Surveyor mission, launched in 1996 and operated until late 2006, that complete, extremely detailed maps were obtained. These maps are now available online.<ref> You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

. Retrieved on 2007-02-26. </ref>

Mars in culture

Historical connections

www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap01.htm|title= Motions of Mars|work=The Planet Mars:://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap01.htm|title= Motions of Mars|work=The Planet Mars:: A History of Observation and Discovery|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> When the Greeks equated Nergal with their god of war, Ares, they named the planet Ἄρεως ἀστἡρ (Areos aster), or "star of Ares". Then, following the identification of Ares and Mars, it was translated into Latin as stella Martis, or "star of Mars", or simply Mars. The Greeks also called the planet Πυρόεις Pyroeis meaning "fiery". In Hindu mythology, Mars is known as Mangala (मंगल). The planet is also called Angaraka in Sanskrit, after the celibate god of war, who possesses the signs of Aries and Scorpio, and teaches the occult sciences. The planet was known by the Egyptians as "Ḥr Dšr";;;; or "Horus the Red". The Hebrews named it Ma'adim (מאדים)—"the one who blushes"; this is where one of the largest canyons on Mars, the Ma'adim Vallis, gets its name. It is known as al-Mirrikh in both Arabic and Persian, and Merih in Turkish. The etymology of al-Mirrikh is unknown. Ancient Persians named it Bahram, the Zoroastrian god of faith. Ancient Turks called it Sakit. The Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet as 火星, or the fire star, a name based on the ancient Chinese mythological cycle of Five elements.

solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=167|title= Planet Symbols|work=NASA solar system exploration|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> ♂ occupies Unicode position U+2642.//solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=167|title= Planet Symbols|work=NASA solar system exploration|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> ♂ occupies Unicode position U+2642.

Intelligent "Martians"

The popular idea that Mars was populated by intelligent Martians exploded in the late 19th century. Schiaparelli's "canali" observations combined with Percival Lowell's books on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying, cooling, dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works.<ref>

You must specify  title =  and url =  when using {{cite web}}.

. solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric//prion.bchs.uh.edu/Mars/Percival_Lowell.htm  
 

 

. Retrieved on 2007-03-01. </ref>

www.rps.psu.edu/0305/mars.html |title=Mars Fever |first=Charles |last=Fergus |journal=Research/Penn State |date=May 2004 |volume=24 |issue=2 |accessdate=2007-08-02}}</ref> In 1899 while investigating atmospheric radio noise using his receivers in his Colorado Springs lab, inventor Nikola Tesla observed repetitive signals that he later surmised might have been radio communications coming from another planet, possibly Mars. In a 1901 interview Tesla said://www.rps.psu.edu/0305/mars.html |title=Mars Fever |first=Charles |last=Fergus |journal=Research/Penn State |date=May 2004 |volume=24 |issue=2 |accessdate=2007-08-02}}</ref> In 1899 while investigating atmospheric radio noise using his receivers in his Colorado Springs lab, inventor Nikola Tesla observed repetitive signals that he later surmised might have been radio communications coming from another planet, possibly Mars. In a 1901 interview Tesla said:

Modèle:Cquote

Tesla's theories gained support from Lord Kelvin who, while visiting the United States in 1902, was reported to have said that he thought Tesla had picked up Martian signals being sent to the United States.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> However, Kelvin "emphatically" denied this report shortly before departing America: "What I really said was that the inhabitants of Mars, if there are any, were doubtless able to see New York, particularly the glare of the electricity."<ref>"Departure of Lord Kelvin", The New York Times, May 11, 1902, p.29.</ref>

select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10D15FE3F5E137A8EDDAF0994D9405B818CF1D3| accessdate = 2007-05-20| archiveurl=http://nbgoku23.googlepages.com/marslight.pdf |format=PDF | archivedate= 2007-05-20}}</ref>//select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10D15FE3F5E137A8EDDAF0994D9405B818CF1D3| accessdate = 2007-05-20| archiveurl=http://nbgoku23.googlepages.com/marslight.pdf |format=PDF | archivedate= 2007-05-20}}</ref>

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Pickering later proposed creating a set of mirrors in Texas with the intention of signaling Martians.

In fiction

Main article: Mars in fiction

The depiction of Mars in fiction has been stimulated by its dramatic red color and by early scientific speculations that its surface conditions not only might support life, but intelligent life.

Thus originated a large number of science fiction scenarios, the best known of which is H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds, in which Martians seek to escape their dying planet by invading Earth. A subsequent radio version of The War of the Worlds on October 30, 1938 was presented as a live news broadcast, and many listeners mistook it for the truth.<ref>

You must specify  title =  and url =  when using {{cite web}}.

. solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric//members.aol.com/jeff1070/wotw.html  
 

 

. Retrieved on 2007-03-01. </ref>

Also influential were Ray Bradbury's The Martian Chronicles, in which human explorers accidentally destroy a Martian civilization, Edgar Rice Burroughs' Barsoom series and a number of Robert A. Heinlein stories prior to the mid-sixties.

Author Jonathan Swift made reference to the moons of Mars, approximately 150 years before their actual discovery by Asaph Hall, detailing reasonably accurate descriptions of their orbits, in the 19th chapter of his novel Gulliver's Travels.<ref>

You must specify  title =  and url =  when using {{cite web}}.

. David Darling
solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric//www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/Swift.html  
 

 

. Retrieved on 2007-03-01. </ref>

After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as it really is, an apparently lifeless and canal-less world, these ideas about Mars had to be abandoned and a vogue for accurate, realist depictions of human colonies on Mars developed, the best known of which may be Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy. However, pseudo-scientific speculations about the Face on Mars and other enigmatic landmarks spotted by space probes have meant that ancient civilizations continue to be a popular theme in science fiction, especially in film.<ref>

You must specify  title =  and url =  when using {{cite web}}.
  Kathy Miles and Charles F Peters II
   
 

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Another popular theme, particularly among American writers, is the Martian colony that fights for independence from Earth. This is a major plot element in the novels of Greg Bear and Kim Stanley Robinson, as well as the movie Total Recall (based on a short story by Philip K. Dick) and the television series Babylon 5. Many video games also use this element, including Red Faction and the Zone of the Enders series. Mars (and its moons) were also the setting for the popular Doom video game franchise and the later Martian Gothic.

In music

In Gustav Holst's The Planets, Mars is depicted as the "Bringer of War".

Possible asteroid impact

neo.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news151.html NASA - Recently Discovered Asteroid Could Hit Mars in January]</ref>//neo.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news151.html NASA - Recently Discovered Asteroid Could Hit Mars in January]</ref> If the asteroid is indeed on a collision course, it would hit Mars with a velocity of about 13.5 km/s (8.4 miles per second), and would produce an explosion equivalent to about 3 megatons of TNT. The asteroid is thought to be similar to the one which hit Tunguska in 1908.

See also

• Colonization of Mars
• Terraforming of Mars
• List of artificial objects on Mars
• List of chasmata on Mars
• List of craters on Mars
• List of valles on Mars
• Extraterrestrial life
• Darian calendar – system of time-keeping

References and Notes

External links

Modèle:Sisterlinks Modèle:Portal Modèle:Portal www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind] www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//www.google.com/mars/ Google Mars] – Interactive image of Mars www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//themis.asu.edu/valles_video/ Flight Into Mariner Valley] – NASA/JPL/Arizona State University 3D flythrough of Valles Marineris www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//www.marsgeo.com/ Marsgeo.com] – Mars Rover photos, videos & surface geology www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//mars.skymania.com/ Guide to Mars] – information about Mars and how to observe it. www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//www.nineplanets.org/mars.html Nine Planets Mars page] www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//history.nasa.gov/SP-4212/on-mars.html On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet 1958–1978] from the NASA History Office. www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//www.cato.org/pubs/wtpapers/980815paper.html Martian Law – a CATO white paper] www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//www.maniacworld.com/mars_mariner_valley.htm Computer Simulation of a flyby through Mariner Valley] www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//www.marsunearthed.com/ Mars Unearthed] – Comparisons of terrains between Earth and Mars www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//ralphaeschliman.com/id30.htm Ralph Aeschliman's Online Atlas of Mars] www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//www.geody.com/?world=mars Geody Mars] – World's search engine that supports NASA World Wind, Celestia, and other applications. www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//dualmoments.com/marsrovers/index.html Be on Mars] – Anaglyphs from the Mars Rovers (3D) www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//onmars.jpl.nasa.gov/ NASA/JPL OnMars WMS Server for Mars Data] – Work as Google Earth client overlays www.lpi.usra.edu/expmars/images.html Exploring Mars: Image Center]//www.lpi.usra.edu/expmars/images.html Exploring Mars: Image Center] www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3426539.stm BBC News update on Mars Express' findings of polar water ice and water-eroded features on the surface] www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4285119.stm BBC News Mars pictures reveal frozen sea] www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//www.space-nasa.com/02-apr-2007-esa-1.html 04/02/07: ESA Prepares for a Human Mission to Mars] www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/Mars 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind]//hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2005/34/image/l Mars' apparent relative size] at opposition as seen by HST

Modèle:Mars Footer Modèle:Footer SolarSystemModèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA

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