Linux
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Modèle:Pp-semi-vandalism Modèle:Two other uses Modèle:Infobox OS www.linux.org/info/index.html | publisher = Linux.org | accessdate = 2007-07-06 }}</ref>//www.linux.org/info/index.html | publisher = Linux.org | accessdate = 2007-07-06 }}</ref>
www.tldp.org/LDP/sag/html/sag.html#GNU-OR-NOT | title = Linux System Administrator's Guide | chapter = 1.1 | edition = version 0.9 | date = 2004 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 | first = Alex | last = Weeks }}</ref> Linux is packaged for different uses in Linux distributions, which contain the sometimes modified kernel along with a variety of other software packages tailored to different requirements.//www.tldp.org/LDP/sag/html/sag.html#GNU-OR-NOT | title = Linux System Administrator's Guide | chapter = 1.1 | edition = version 0.9 | date = 2004 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 | first = Alex | last = Weeks }}</ref> Linux is packaged for different uses in Linux distributions, which contain the sometimes modified kernel along with a variety of other software packages tailored to different requirements.
www.forbes.com/home/enterprisetech/2005/03/15/cz_dl_0315linux.html | last = Lyons | first = Daniel | accessdate = 2007-02-22 }}</ref> video game systems, such as PlayStation 2, 3, several arcade games, and embedded devices, such as mobile phones and routers.//www.forbes.com/home/enterprisetech/2005/03/15/cz_dl_0315linux.html | last = Lyons | first = Daniel | accessdate = 2007-02-22 }}</ref> video game systems, such as PlayStation 2, 3, several arcade games, and embedded devices, such as mobile phones and routers.
www.paul.sladen.org/pronunciation/ | title = How to pronounce Linux? | accessdate = 2006-12-17 }} ─ and Swedish (Modèle:IPA) ─ Linus pronouncing Linux in English and Swedish
. Retrieved on 2007-01-20.
</ref> though other variations are common.//www.paul.sladen.org/pronunciation/ | title = How to pronounce Linux? | accessdate = 2006-12-17 }} ─ and Swedish (Modèle:IPA) ─ Linus pronouncing Linux in English and Swedish
. Retrieved on 2007-01-20.
</ref> though other variations are common.
Sommaire |
History
The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in the 1960s and first released in 1970. Its wide availability and portability meant that it was widely adopted, copied and modified by academic institutions and businesses, with its design being influential on authors of other systems.
www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html About the GNU Project - Initial Announcement]</ref> made entirely of free software. In 1985, Richard Stallman created the Free Software Foundation and developed the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL), in order to spread software freely. Many of the programs required in an OS (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were completed by the early 1990s, although low level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete.<ref name="gnu history">Overview of the GNU System</ref> Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, he would not have decided to write his own.<ref> Linus vs. Tanenbaum debate
.</ref>//www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html About the GNU Project - Initial Announcement]</ref> made entirely of free software. In 1985, Richard Stallman created the Free Software Foundation and developed the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL), in order to spread software freely. Many of the programs required in an OS (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were completed by the early 1990s, although low level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete.<ref name="gnu history">Overview of the GNU System</ref> Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, he would not have decided to write his own.<ref> Linus vs. Tanenbaum debate
.</ref>
MINIX
MINIX, a Unix-like system intended for academic use, was released by Andrew S. Tanenbaum in 1987. While source code for the system was available, modification and redistribution were restricted. In addition, MINIX's 16-bit design was not well adapted to the 32-bit design of the increasingly cheap and popular Intel 386 architecture for personal computers.
groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/b813d52cbc5a044b | last = Torvalds | first = Linus | accessdate = 2006-09-09 }}</ref> This eventually became the Linux kernel.//groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/b813d52cbc5a044b | last = Torvalds | first = Linus | accessdate = 2006-09-09 }}</ref> This eventually became the Linux kernel.
www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/Historic/old-versions/RELNOTES-0.12 | authorlink = Linus Torvalds | date = 1992-01-05 | accessdate = 2007-07-23 | publisher = Linux Kernel Archives | quote = The Linux copyright will change: I've had a couple of requests to make it compatible with the GNU copyleft, removing the “you may not distribute it for money” condition. I agree. I propose that the copyright be changed so that it confirms to GNU ─ pending approval of the persons who have helped write code. I assume this is going to be no problem for anybody: If you have grievances (“I wrote that code assuming the copyright would stay the same”) mail me. Otherwise The GNU copyleft takes effect as of the first of February. If you do not know the gist of the GNU copyright ─ read it. }}</ref> Linux and GNU developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.<ref name="gnu history"/>//www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/Historic/old-versions/RELNOTES-0.12 | authorlink = Linus Torvalds | date = 1992-01-05 | accessdate = 2007-07-23 | publisher = Linux Kernel Archives | quote = The Linux copyright will change: I've had a couple of requests to make it compatible with the GNU copyleft, removing the “you may not distribute it for money” condition. I agree. I propose that the copyright be changed so that it confirms to GNU ─ pending approval of the persons who have helped write code. I assume this is going to be no problem for anybody: If you have grievances (“I wrote that code assuming the copyright would stay the same”) mail me. Otherwise The GNU copyleft takes effect as of the first of February. If you do not know the gist of the GNU copyright ─ read it. }}</ref> Linux and GNU developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.<ref name="gnu history"/>
Commercial and popular uptake
www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-embdev.html | first = Anand | last = Santhanam | coauthors = Vishal Kulkarni | work = DeveloperWorks | publisher = IBM | date = 1 March 2002 | accessdate = 2007-07-26 }}</ref> to supercomputers,<ref> Lyons , Daniel
. Linux rules supercomputers
. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. </ref> and has secured a place in server installations with the popular LAMP application stack.<ref> Schrecker , Michael
. Turn on Web Interactivity with LAMP
. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. </ref> Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.//www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-embdev.html | first = Anand | last = Santhanam | coauthors = Vishal Kulkarni | work = DeveloperWorks | publisher = IBM | date = 1 March 2002 | accessdate = 2007-07-26 }}</ref> to supercomputers,<ref> Lyons , Daniel
. Linux rules supercomputers
. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. </ref> and has secured a place in server installations with the popular LAMP application stack.<ref> Schrecker , Michael
. Turn on Web Interactivity with LAMP
. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. </ref> Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.
Development
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is the best-known and most widely used. Some free and open source software licences are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU GPL, is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU project.
www.ukuug.org/newsletter/linux-newsletter/linux@uk21/posix.shtml | title = POSIX.1 (FIPS 151-2) Certification }}</ref> SUS,<ref> How source code compatible is Debian with other Unix systems?
. Debian FAQ . the Debian project
.</ref> ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.<ref> Certifying Linux
.</ref>//www.ukuug.org/newsletter/linux-newsletter/linux@uk21/posix.shtml | title = POSIX.1 (FIPS 151-2) Certification }}</ref> SUS,<ref> How source code compatible is Debian with other Unix systems?
. Debian FAQ . the Debian project
.</ref> ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.<ref> Certifying Linux
.</ref>
Free software projects, although developed in a collaborative fashion, are often produced independently of each other. However, given that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, this provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.
A Linux distribution, commonly called a “distro”, is a project that manages a remote collection of Linux-based software, and facilitates installation of a Linux operating system. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. They include system software and application software in the form of packages, and distribution-specific software for initial system installation and configuration as well as later package upgrades and installs. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of installed Linux systems, system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole.
Community
Linux is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora.
In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux Users Groups (LUGs) seek to promote Linux and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. There are also many Internet communities that seek to provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and open source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the Gentoo forums. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.
There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Linux Weekly News is a weekly digest of Linux-related news; the Linux Journal is an online magazine of Linux articles published monthly; Slashdot is a technology-related news website with many stories on Linux and open source software; Groklaw has written in depth about Linux-related legal proceedings; and there are many articles relevant to the Linux kernel and its relationship with the GNU on the project's website.
Although Linux is generally available free of charge, several large corporations have established business models that involve selling, supporting, and contributing to Linux and free software. These include Dell, IBM, HP, Sun Microsystems, Novell, and Red Hat. The free software licenses on which Linux is based explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between Linux as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks. Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware.
Programming on Linux
Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for C, [[C++]], Java, Ada and Fortran. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC.
programming.linux.com/programming/05/10/03/1828224.shtml?tid=63&tid=47 | accessdate = 2006-12-16 }}</ref>//programming.linux.com/programming/05/10/03/1828224.shtml?tid=63&tid=47 | accessdate = 2006-12-16 }}</ref>
Although free and open source compilers and tools are widely used under Linux, there are also proprietary solutions available from a range of companies, including the [[Intel C++ Compiler]], PathScale, Micro Focus COBOL, Franz Inc and the Portland Group.
Design
Linux is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Linux uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, and peripheral and file system access. Device drivers are integrated directly with the kernel.
Much of Linux's higher-level functionality is provided by separate projects which interface with the kernel. The GNU userland is an important part of most Linux systems, providing the shell and Unix tools which carry out many basic operating system tasks. Atop these tools graphical user interfaces can be placed, usually running via the X Window System.
User interface
Linux is coupled to a text-based command line interface (CLI), though this is usually hidden on desktop computers by a graphical user interface (GUI). On small devices, input may be handled through controls on the device itself, and direct input to Linux might be hidden entirely.
The X Window System (X) is the predominant graphical subsystem used in Linux. X provides network transparency, enabling graphical output to be displayed on machines other than that which a program runs on. For desktop machines X runs locally.
Early GUIs for Linux were based on a stand-alone X window manager such as FVWM, Enlightenment, or Window Maker, and a suite of diverse applications running under it. The window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X window system. Because the X window managers only manage the placement of windows, their decoration, and some inter-process communication, the look and feel of individual applications may vary widely, especially if they use different graphical user interface toolkits.
times.debian.net/1092-30000-popcon-submissions }}</ref>//times.debian.net/1092-30000-popcon-submissions }}</ref>
Linux systems usually provide a CLI of some sort through a shell, the traditional way of interacting with Unix systems. Even on modern desktop machines, some form of CLI is almost always accessible. Linux distributions specialized for servers may use the CLI as their only interface, and Linux machines can run without a monitor attached. Such “headless systems” may be controlled by command line via a protocol such as SSH or telnet.
Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU Userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple inter-process communication. Graphical terminal emulator programs can be used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop.
Uses
lwn.net/Distributions/ | title = The LWN.net Linux Distribution List | accessdate = 2006-05-19 }}</ref>//lwn.net/Distributions/ | title = The LWN.net Linux Distribution List | accessdate = 2006-05-19 }}</ref>
www.freeos.com/articles/4737/ | title = If I could re-write Linux | first = Prakash | last = Advani | date = February 8 2004 | accessdate = 2007-01-23 | publisher = freeos.com }}</ref> Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers, PDAs, Video game consoles, portable music players, and Mobile phones.//www.freeos.com/articles/4737/ | title = If I could re-write Linux | first = Prakash | last = Advani | date = February 8 2004 | accessdate = 2007-01-23 | publisher = freeos.com }}</ref> Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers, PDAs, Video game consoles, portable music players, and Mobile phones.
Desktop
www.linuxrsp.ru/win-lin-soft/table-eng.html }}</ref>//www.linuxrsp.ru/win-lin-soft/table-eng.html }}</ref>
www.iist.unu.edu/globaldesktop/ | title = The Global Desktop Project, Building Technology and Communities|accessdate = 2006-05-07 }}</ref> examples being Adobe Flash Player, Acrobat Reader, Matlab, Nero Burning ROM, Opera, RealPlayer, and Skype. In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake are available both for Linux, Windows and/or MacOS X. Additionally, CrossOver is a commercial solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running Windows versions of Microsoft Office and Photoshop.//www.iist.unu.edu/globaldesktop/ | title = The Global Desktop Project, Building Technology and Communities|accessdate = 2006-05-07 }}</ref> examples being Adobe Flash Player, Acrobat Reader, Matlab, Nero Burning ROM, Opera, RealPlayer, and Skype. In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake are available both for Linux, Windows and/or MacOS X. Additionally, CrossOver is a commercial solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running Windows versions of Microsoft Office and Photoshop.
Linux's open nature offers the ability for distributed teams to localize Linux distributions for use in locales where doing so to proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example, the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix distribution was available for a long time before the initiation of translation of Microsoft Windows XP to Sinhalese. In this case, The Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, linguists and local developers.
Servers and supercomputers
news.netcraft.com/archives/2006/10/07/rackspace_most_reliable_hoster_in_september.html | publisher = Netcraft | date = October 7 2006 | accessdate = 2006-11-01}}</ref> This is due to its relative stability and long uptime, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface is often unneeded. Enterprise and non-enterprise Linux distributions may be found running on servers. Linux is the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.//news.netcraft.com/archives/2006/10/07/rackspace_most_reliable_hoster_in_september.html | publisher = Netcraft | date = October 7 2006 | accessdate = 2006-11-01}}</ref> This is due to its relative stability and long uptime, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface is often unneeded. Enterprise and non-enterprise Linux distributions may be found running on servers. Linux is the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.
www.top500.org/stats/list/30/osfam</ref>//www.top500.org/stats/list/30/osfam</ref>
Embedded devices
www.informationweek.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=197000995 | title = The Palm OS Clings To Life }}</ref> — and it is an alternative to the dominant Windows CE and Palm OS operating systems on handheld devices. The popular TiVo digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.<ref>
TiVo ─ GNU/Linux Source Code
. Archived from the original on 2007-05-19.
Retrieved on 2006-12-12.
</ref> Several network firewall and router standalone products, including several from Linksys, use Linux internally, using its advanced firewall and routing capabilities. The Korg OASYS and the Yamaha Motif XS music workstations also run Linux.<ref> Case Study: How MontaVista Linux helped Yamaha developers make a great product greater
. Retrieved on 2007-08-26.
</ref>//www.informationweek.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=197000995 | title = The Palm OS Clings To Life }}</ref> — and it is an alternative to the dominant Windows CE and Palm OS operating systems on handheld devices. The popular TiVo digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.<ref>
TiVo ─ GNU/Linux Source Code
. Archived from the original on 2007-05-19.
Retrieved on 2006-12-12.
</ref> Several network firewall and router standalone products, including several from Linksys, use Linux internally, using its advanced firewall and routing capabilities. The Korg OASYS and the Yamaha Motif XS music workstations also run Linux.<ref> Case Study: How MontaVista Linux helped Yamaha developers make a great product greater
. Retrieved on 2007-08-26.
</ref>
Market share and uptake
www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html | title = Why Open Source Software/Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers! | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref> The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.<ref> Linux To Ring Up $35 Billion By 2008
. Retrieved on 2006-04-01.
</ref>//www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html | title = Why Open Source Software/Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers! | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref> The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.<ref> Linux To Ring Up $35 Billion By 2008
. Retrieved on 2006-04-01.
</ref>
www.linux-watch.com/news/NS5369154346.html Linux-watch.com ─ IDC Q1 2007 report]</ref> This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies.//www.linux-watch.com/news/NS5369154346.html Linux-watch.com ─ IDC Q1 2007 report]</ref> This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies.
Desktop adoption of Linux is approximately 1%. In comparison, Microsoft operating systems hold more than 90%. www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,2168426,00.asp | work =eWEEK | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref>//www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,2168426,00.asp | work =eWEEK | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref> arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20070903-linux-marketshare-set-to-surpass-windows-98.html | work =Ars Technica | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref>//arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20070903-linux-marketshare-set-to-surpass-windows-98.html | work =Ars Technica | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref> www.itwire.com.au/content/view/8842/53/ | work =iTWire | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref>//www.itwire.com.au/content/view/8842/53/ | work =iTWire | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref> marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=15&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=Y |title=Operating System Marketshare for Year 2007 |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2007-11-19 |work=Market Share |publisher=Net Applications }}</ref>//marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=15&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=Y |title=Operating System Marketshare for Year 2007 |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2007-11-19 |work=Market Share |publisher=Net Applications }}</ref> www.xitimonitor.com/en-us/internet-users-equipment/operating-systems-august-2007/index-1-2-7-107.html | work =XiTiMonitor | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref>//www.xitimonitor.com/en-us/internet-users-equipment/operating-systems-august-2007/index-1-2-7-107.html | work =XiTiMonitor | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | language = }}</ref> marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=15&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=Y |title=Operating System Marketshare for Year 2007 |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2007-11-19 |work=Market Share |publisher=Net Applications }}</ref>//www.w3counter.com/globalstats.php |title=Global Web Stats |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2007-11-10 |work=W3Counter |publisher=Awio Web Services LLC }}</ref> marketshare.hitslink.com/report.aspx?qprid=2&qpmr=15&qpdt=1&qpct=3&qptimeframe=Y |title=Operating System Marketshare for Year 2007 |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2007-11-19 |work=Market Share |publisher=Net Applications }}</ref>//www.google.com/press/zeitgeist/zeitgeist-jun04.html |title=June 2004 Zeitgeist |accessdate=2007-11-19 |date=2004-08-12 |work=Google Press Center |publisher=Google Inc. }}</ref>
www-306.ibm.com/software/info/features/feb152005/ | title = Why customers are flocking to Linux }}</ref> low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.<ref> The rise and rise of Linux
.</ref>//www-306.ibm.com/software/info/features/feb152005/ | title = Why customers are flocking to Linux }}</ref> low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.<ref> The rise and rise of Linux
.</ref>
www.laptop.org/en/vision/mission/index.shtml several hundred million schoolchildren] and their families and communities in developing countries. Six countries have ordered a million or more units each for delivery in 2007 to distribute to schoolchildren at no charge. Google, Red Hat, and eBay are major supporters of the project.[citation needed]//www.laptop.org/en/vision/mission/index.shtml several hundred million schoolchildren] and their families and communities in developing countries. Six countries have ordered a million or more units each for delivery in 2007 to distribute to schoolchildren at no charge. Google, Red Hat, and eBay are major supporters of the project.[citation needed]Modèle:See also
Copyright and naming
kde.sw.com.sg/food/linus.html | title = Linus Torvalds interview | accessdate = 2007-09-13 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070311190841/http://kde.sw.com.sg/food/linus.html |archivedate=2007-03-11}}</ref> Other key components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X Window System uses the MIT License.//kde.sw.com.sg/food/linus.html | title = Linus Torvalds interview | accessdate = 2007-09-13 |archiveurl= |archivedate=2007-03-11}}</ref> Other key components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X Window System uses the MIT License.//kde.sw.com.sg/food/linus.html | title = Linus Torvalds interview | accessdate = 2007-09-13 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070311190841/http://kde.sw.com.sg/food/linus.html |archivedate=2007-03-11}}</ref> Other key components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X Window System uses the MIT License.
lkml.org/lkml/2006/1/25/273 | title=Re: GPL V3 and Linux ─ Dead Copyright Holders | author=Torvalds, Linus | date=2006-01-26 | publisher=Linux Kernel Mailing List}}</ref><ref> Torvalds, Linus
(2006-09-25) . |archivedate=2007-03-11}}</ref> Other key components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X Window System uses the MIT License.
lkml.org/lkml/2006/1/25/273 | title=Re: GPL V3 and Linux ─ Dead Copyright Holders | author=Torvalds, Linus | date=2006-01-26 | publisher=Linux Kernel Mailing List}}</ref><ref> Torvalds, Linus
(2006-09-25) . Re: GPLv3 Position Statement . Linux Kernel Mailing List
.</ref>//lkml.org/lkml/2006/1/25/273 | title=Re: GPL V3 and Linux ─ Dead Copyright Holders | author=Torvalds, Linus | date=2006-01-26 | publisher=Linux Kernel Mailing List}}</ref><ref> Torvalds, Linus
(2006-09-25) . Re: GPLv3 Position Statement . Linux Kernel Mailing List
.</ref>
www.dwheeler.com/sloc/redhat71-v1/redhat71sloc.html | title = More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size | accessdate = 2006-05-11 }}</ref>//www.dwheeler.com/sloc/redhat71-v1/redhat71sloc.html | title = More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size | accessdate = 2006-05-11 }}</ref>
Most of the code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including [[C++]], assembly language, Perl, Fortran, Python and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.<ref name = "estimating_size"/>
penta.debconf.org/~joerg/attachments/33-measuring_etch_slides.pdf | title = Measuring Etch: the size of Debian 4.0 | accessdate = 2007-09-16 }}</ref> This distribution contained over 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 5.4 billion Euros to develop by conventional means.//penta.debconf.org/~joerg/attachments/33-measuring_etch_slides.pdf | title = Measuring Etch: the size of Debian 4.0 | accessdate = 2007-09-16 }}</ref> This distribution contained over 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 5.4 billion Euros to develop by conventional means.
assignments.uspto.gov/assignments/q?db=tm&rno=1916230 | title = U.S. Reg No: 1916230 | publisher = United States Patent and Trademark Office | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref> Initially, nobody registered it, but on August 15 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.<ref> Linux Timeline
. Linux Journal (31 May 2006)
.</ref> The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he only trademarked the name to prevent someone else from using it, but was bound in 2005 by United States trademark law to take active measures to enforce the trademark. As a result, the LMI sent out a number of letters to distribution vendors requesting that a fee be paid for the use of the name, and a number of companies have complied.<ref> Linus gets tough on Linux trademark
(2005-09-05)
. Retrieved on 2006-09-04. </ref>//assignments.uspto.gov/assignments/q?db=tm&rno=1916230 | title = U.S. Reg No: 1916230 | publisher = United States Patent and Trademark Office | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref> Initially, nobody registered it, but on August 15 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.<ref> Linux Timeline
. Linux Journal (31 May 2006)
.</ref> The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he only trademarked the name to prevent someone else from using it, but was bound in 2005 by United States trademark law to take active measures to enforce the trademark. As a result, the LMI sent out a number of letters to distribution vendors requesting that a fee be paid for the use of the name, and a number of companies have complied.<ref> Linus gets tough on Linux trademark
(2005-09-05)
. Retrieved on 2006-09-04. </ref>
GNU/Linux
www.gnu.org/gnu/linux-and-gnu.html | first = Richard | last = Stallman | authorlink = Richard Stallman | date = 2007-03-03 | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | publisher = Free Software Foundation }}</ref> However, the media and population at large refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux. While some distributors make a point of using the aggregate form, most notably Debian with the Debian GNU/Linux distribution, the term's use outside of the enthusiast community is limited. The distinction between the Linux kernel and distributions based on it plus the GNU system is a source of confusion to many newcomers, and the naming remains controversial.//www.gnu.org/gnu/linux-and-gnu.html | first = Richard | last = Stallman | authorlink = Richard Stallman | date = 2007-03-03 | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | publisher = Free Software Foundation }}</ref> However, the media and population at large refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux. While some distributors make a point of using the aggregate form, most notably Debian with the Debian GNU/Linux distribution, the term's use outside of the enthusiast community is limited. The distinction between the Linux kernel and distributions based on it plus the GNU system is a source of confusion to many newcomers, and the naming remains controversial.
See also
- List of Linux distributions
- Comparison of Linux distributions
- Comparison of Windows and Linux
- Comparison of open source and closed source
- The Cathedral and the Bazaar
- Linux software
- Plan 9 from Bell Labs - free successor of AT&T Unix
References
External links
Modèle:Sisterlinks www.kernel.org/ Linux kernel website and archives]//www.kernel.org/ Linux kernel website and archives] www.kernel.org/ Linux kernel website and archives]//www.linuxmark.org/ The Linux Mark Institute] (manages the Linux trade mark) www.kernel.org/ Linux kernel website and archives]//www.linux-foundation.org/ The Linux Foundation] www.kernel.org/ Linux kernel website and archives]//www.gnu.org/ GNU Project website] www.kernel.org/ Linux kernel website and archives]//www.google.com/options/specialsearches.html Google Linux Search]. www.kernel.org/ Linux kernel website and archives]//linuxzoo.net/ linuxzoo] Online Linux system with root access. www.kernel.org/ Linux kernel website and archives]//www.makelinux.net/reference Linux Technology Reference]
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