Peru

Un article de Vev.

Modèle:Otheruses Modèle:Infobox Country

Peru (Modèle:Lang-es, Modèle:Lang-qu, Modèle:Lang-ay), officially the Republic of Peru (Modèle:Audio-es, Modèle:IPA2), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, and to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the country in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.

Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a medium Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 50%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles.

The Peruvian population, estimated at 28 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua and other native languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Etymology

The word Peru is derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 83.</ref> When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 84.</ref> Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 86.</ref> The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 87.</ref> Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after independence.

History

Main article: History of Peru

The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian territory has been dated to approximately 11,000 years BCE.<ref>Tom Dillehay et al, "The first settlers", p. 20.</ref> The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3000 and 1800 BCE.<ref>Jonathan Haas et al, "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru", p. 1021.</ref> These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimu. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.<ref>Terence D'Altroy, The Incas, pp. 2–3.</ref> Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money.<ref>Enrique Mayer, The articulated peasant, pp. 47–68.</ref>

In 1532, a group of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated Inca Emperor Atahualpa and imposed Spanish rule. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.<ref>Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias, vol. II, pp. 12–13.</ref> Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and Indian forced labor as its primary workforce.<ref>Peter Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain, p. 181.</ref> Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.<ref>Margarita Suárez, Desafíos transatlánticos, pp. 252–253.</ref> However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.<ref>Kenneth Andrien, Crisis and decline, pp. 200–202.</ref> In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.<ref>Mark Burkholder, From impotence to authority, pp. 83–87.</ref> The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.<ref>Scarlett O'Phelan, Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru, p. 276.</ref>

In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.<ref>Timothy Anna, The fall of the royal government in Peru, pp. 237–238.</ref> During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.<ref>Charles Walker, Smoldering ashes, pp. 124–125.</ref> National identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation foundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, Between silver and guano, p. 12.</ref> Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla due to increased state revenues from guano exports.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, Imagining development, pp. 5–6.</ref> However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, Imagining development, p. 9.</ref>

Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, losing the provinces of Arica and Tarapacá in the treaties of Ancón and Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.<ref>Ulrich Mücke, Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru, pp. 193–194.</ref> The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).<ref>Peter Klarén, Peru, pp. 262–276.</ref> The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.<ref>David Palmer, Peru: the authoritarian tradition, p. 93.</ref>

news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1031752.stm Fujimori: Decline and fall]. Retrieved on July 21, 2007.</ref> Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth; the current president is Alan García.<ref>The Economist, Peru. Retrieved on July 18, 2007.</ref>//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1031752.stm Fujimori: Decline and fall]. Retrieved on July 21, 2007.</ref> Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth; the current president is Alan García.<ref>The Economist, Peru. Retrieved on July 18, 2007.</ref>

Government

Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru

www.lchr.org/pubs/descriptions/perubuilding.htm Building on quicksand]. Retrieved on July 24, 2007.</ref>//www.lchr.org/pubs/descriptions/perubuilding.htm Building on quicksand]. Retrieved on July 24, 2007.</ref>

www.onpe.gob.pe/resultados2006/2davuelta/onpe/presidente/rep_resumen_pre.onpe Segunda Elección Presidencial 2006]. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.</ref> Congress is currently composed of Union for Peru (45 seats), the Peruvian Aprista Party (35 seats), National Unity (17 seats), Alliance for the Future (13 seats), the Center Front (5 seats), Peru Possible (2 seats), and National Restoration (2 seats).<ref>(Spanish) Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, Elecciones Congresales 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.</ref>//www.onpe.gob.pe/resultados2006/2davuelta/onpe/presidente/rep_resumen_pre.onpe Segunda Elección Presidencial 2006]. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.</ref> Congress is currently composed of Union for Peru (45 seats), the Peruvian Aprista Party (35 seats), National Unity (17 seats), Alliance for the Future (13 seats), the Center Front (5 seats), Peru Possible (2 seats), and National Restoration (2 seats).<ref>(Spanish) Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, Elecciones Congresales 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.</ref>

news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4405402.stm Peru–Chile border row escalates]. Retrieved on May 16, 2007.</ref> Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations, where it is an elected member of the Security Council for the 2006–2007 term. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.<ref>Ministerio de Defensa, Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional, p. 90.</ref> The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.<ref>Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar, Articles N° 29, 42 and 45.</ref>//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4405402.stm Peru–Chile border row escalates]. Retrieved on May 16, 2007.</ref> Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations, where it is an elected member of the Security Council for the 2006–2007 term. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.<ref>Ministerio de Defensa, Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional, p. 90.</ref> The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.<ref>Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar, Articles N° 29, 42 and 45.</ref>

Regions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Peru

Modèle:Peru Labelled Area Map Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and a council, which serves for a four-year term.<ref>Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 11.</ref> These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.<ref>Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 10.</ref> The province of Lima is administered by a city council.<ref>Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 66.</ref>

Regions:

Province:

• Lima

Geography

Main article: Geography of Peru

Peru covers 1,285,220 km² (496,193 mi²), making it approximately two-thirds the size of Mexico. It neighbors Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

www.andeshandbook.cl/eng/default.asp?main=cerro.asp?codigo=54 Huascarán]. Retrieved on August 12, 2007.</ref> The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 16.</ref>//www.andeshandbook.cl/eng/default.asp?main=cerro.asp?codigo=54 Huascarán]. Retrieved on August 12, 2007.</ref> The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 16.</ref>

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 31.</ref> Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 21.</ref>

Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current causes great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 24–25.</ref> In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 25–26.</ref> The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southermost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 26–27.</ref> Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity; 21,462 species of plants and animals had been reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 50.</ref> The Peruvian government has established several protected areas for their preservation.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Peru

hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2007-2008/ Human Development Report 2007/2008], p. 230. Retrieved on November 28, 2007.</ref> Its 2006 per capita income was US$3,374;<ref>International Monetary Fund, Countries. Retrieved on August 3, 2007.</ref> 51.6% of its total population is poor, including 19.2% that is extremely poor.<ref>2004 figure. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Condiciones de Vida en el Perú: Evolución 1997–2004, pp. 71–72</ref> Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.<ref>Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 4.</ref> Although exports have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.<ref>Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 321.</ref>//hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2007-2008/ Human Development Report 2007/2008], p. 230. Retrieved on November 28, 2007.</ref> Its 2006 per capita income was US$3,374;<ref>International Monetary Fund, Countries. Retrieved on August 3, 2007.</ref> 51.6% of its total population is poor, including 19.2% that is extremely poor.<ref>2004 figure. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Condiciones de Vida en el Perú: Evolución 1997–2004, pp. 71–72</ref> Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.<ref>Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 4.</ref> Although exports have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.<ref>Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 321.</ref>

www.bcrp.gob.pe/bcr/dmdocuments/Estadistica/Cuadros/Anuales/ACuadro_06.xls Producto bruto interno por sectores productivos 1951–2006]. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.</ref>//www.bcrp.gob.pe/bcr/dmdocuments/Estadistica/Cuadros/Anuales/ACuadro_06.xls Producto bruto interno por sectores productivos 1951–2006]. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.</ref>

www.bcrp.gob.pe/bcr/Memoria-Anual/Memoria-2006.html Memoria 2006], p. 204. Retrieved on June 25, 2007.</ref> Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.<ref>(Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, pp. 15, 203. Retrieved on June 25, 2007.</ref> Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States, which was signed on April 12, 2006.<ref>Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement, April 4, 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.</ref> Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.<ref>2006 figures. (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, pp. 60–61. Retrieved on July 3, 2007.</ref>//www.bcrp.gob.pe/bcr/Memoria-Anual/Memoria-2006.html Memoria 2006], p. 204. Retrieved on June 25, 2007.</ref> Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.<ref>(Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, pp. 15, 203. Retrieved on June 25, 2007.</ref> Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States, which was signed on April 12, 2006.<ref>Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement, April 4, 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.</ref> Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.<ref>2006 figures. (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, pp. 60–61. Retrieved on July 3, 2007.</ref>

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Peru

www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006_highlights.pdf World Population Prospects]|1.29 MiB}}, pp. 43–47. Retrieved on July 29, 2007</ref> Its demographic growth declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050, pp. 37–38, 40.</ref> As of 2005, 72.6% lived in urban areas and 27.4% in rural areas.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050, p. 45.</ref> Major cities include Lima, Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Chimbote, Cusco, and Huancayo, all of which reported more than 200,000 inhabitants in the 1993 census.<ref>(Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Migraciones Internas en el Perú. Retrieved on May 15, 2007</ref>//www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006_highlights.pdf World Population Prospects]|1.29 MiB}}, pp. 43–47. Retrieved on July 29, 2007</ref> Its demographic growth declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050, pp. 37–38, 40.</ref> As of 2005, 72.6% lived in urban areas and 27.4% in rural areas.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050, p. 45.</ref> Major cities include Lima, Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Chimbote, Cusco, and Huancayo, all of which reported more than 200,000 inhabitants in the 1993 census.<ref>(Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Migraciones Internas en el Perú. Retrieved on May 15, 2007</ref>

www.chapters.indigo.ca/books/Born-Die-Disease-New-World-Noble-David-Cook-Stuart-Schwartz/9780521627306-item.html?ref=Search+Books%3a+%2527Noble+David+Cook%2527 Born To Die: Disease And New World Conquest, 1492-1650: Noble David Cook]</ref><ref>Silent Killers of the New World</ref> Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there has been a gradual European immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.<ref>Mario Vázquez, "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79–81.</ref> Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.<ref>Magnus Mörner, Race mixture in the history of Latin America, p. 131.</ref> Other immigrant groups include Arabs and Japanese.//www.chapters.indigo.ca/books/Born-Die-Disease-New-World-Noble-David-Cook-Stuart-Schwartz/9780521627306-item.html?ref=Search+Books%3a+%2527Noble+David+Cook%2527 Born To Die: Disease And New World Conquest, 1492-1650: Noble David Cook]</ref><ref>Silent Killers of the New World</ref> Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there has been a gradual European immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.<ref>Mario Vázquez, "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79–81.</ref> Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.<ref>Magnus Mörner, Race mixture in the history of Latin America, p. 131.</ref> Other immigrant groups include Arabs and Japanese.

www.inei.gob.pe/biblioineipub/bancopub/Est/Lib0007/CAP0209.HTM Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú]. Retrieved on May 15, 2007</ref> In the 1993 census, 89% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 6.7% as Evangelical, 2.6% as of other denominations, and 1.4% as non-religious; 0.2% did not specify any affiliation.<ref>(Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú. Retrieved on May 15, 2007</ref> Literacy was estimated at 88.9% in 2005; this rate is lower in rural areas (76.1%) than in urban areas (94.8%).<ref>(Spanish) Portal Educativo Huascarán, El analfabetismo en cifras. Retrieved on May 15, 2007</ref> Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.<ref>Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 17.</ref>//www.inei.gob.pe/biblioineipub/bancopub/Est/Lib0007/CAP0209.HTM Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú]. Retrieved on May 15, 2007</ref> In the 1993 census, 89% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 6.7% as Evangelical, 2.6% as of other denominations, and 1.4% as non-religious; 0.2% did not specify any affiliation.<ref>(Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú. Retrieved on May 15, 2007</ref> Literacy was estimated at 88.9% in 2005; this rate is lower in rural areas (76.1%) than in urban areas (94.8%).<ref>(Spanish) Portal Educativo Huascarán, El analfabetismo en cifras. Retrieved on May 15, 2007</ref> Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.<ref>Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 17.</ref>

Culture

Main article: Culture of Peru

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,<ref>Víctor Andrés Belaunde, Peruanidad, p. 472.</ref> though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.<ref>Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Art of colonial Latin America, pp. 72–74.</ref> During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.<ref>Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Art of colonial Latin America, p. 263.</ref> Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.<ref>Edward Lucie-Smith, Latin American art of the 20th century, pp. 76–77, 145–146.</ref> Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.<ref>Damián Bayón, "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980", pp. 425–428.</ref>

Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.<ref>Gerald Martin, "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870", pp. 37–39.</ref> In the early 20th century, the Indigenismo movement produced such writers as Ciro Alegría,<ref>Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 151–152.</ref> José María Arguedas,<ref>Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 178–179.</ref> and César Vallejo.<ref>Jaime Concha, "Poetry, c. 1920–1950", pp. 250–253.</ref> During the second half of the century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.<ref>Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 186–188.</ref>

www.peruvianembassy.us/all-about-peru-the-culture-peruvian-gastronomy.php The Peruvian Gastronomy]. Retrieved on May 15, 2007</ref>//www.peruvianembassy.us/all-about-peru-the-culture-peruvian-gastronomy.php The Peruvian Gastronomy]. Retrieved on May 15, 2007</ref>

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish and African roots.<ref>Raúl Romero, "Andean Peru", p. 385–386.</ref> In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region to region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.<ref>Dale Olsen, Music of El Dorado, pp. 17–22.</ref> Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and the harp, as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.<ref>Thomas Turino, "Charango", p. 340.</ref> African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.<ref>Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 263–265.</ref> Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, danza de tijeras and huayno.<ref>Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 243–245, 261–263.</ref>

See also

Modèle:Peru topics

Notes

Bibliography

External links

Modèle:Sisterlinks

Government

www.tc.gob.pe/legconperu/constitucion.html Constitución Política del Perú]. December 29, 1993.//www.peru.gob.pe/ Web portal] of the Peruvian Government www.tc.gob.pe/legconperu/constitucion.html Constitución Política del Perú]. December 29, 1993.//www.peru.gob.pe/gobierno/list_instituciones_alfabetico.asp Directory] of Peruvian Government websites

General reference

news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1224656.stm Peru]//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1224656.stm Peru]

• Modèle:CIA World Factbook link

www.britannica.com/nations/Peru Peru]//www.britannica.com/nations/Peru Peru] www.perulinks.com/pages/english/ Peru web directory]//www.perulinks.com/pages/english/ Peru web directory]

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• [{{{2}}} Catégorie Regional/South_America/Peru/] de l’annuaire dmoz.

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Modèle:Featured articleaf:Peru ar:بيرو an:Perú frp:Pèrou ast:Perú gn:Perũ ay:Piruw az:Peru bn:পেরু zh-min-nan:Perú be-x-old:Пэру bs:Peru br:Perou bg:Перу ca:Perú cv:Перу ceb:Peru cs:Peru cy:Periw da:Peru de:Peru dv:ޕެރޫ et:Peruu el:Περού es:Perú eo:Peruo eu:Peru fa:پرو fr:Pérou ga:Peiriúgd:Pearu gl:Perú ko:페루 hi:पेरू hr:Peru io:Peru ilo:Peru bpy:পেরু id:Peru ia:Peru iu:ᐱᕉ/piruu is:Perú it:Perù he:פרו jv:Peru pam:Peru kn:ಪೆರು ka:პერუ ks:Pēru kk:Перу kw:Perou sw:Peru ht:Pewou ku:Perû lad:Peru la:Peruvia lv:Peru lb:Peru lij:Perù lt:Peru li:Peru hu:Peru mk:Перу mr:पेरू देश ms:Peru nah:Perutlān na:Peru nl:Peru ne:पेरु ja:ペルー no:Peru nn:Peru nrm:Pérou nov:Peru oc:Peró uz:Peru ps:پيرو pms:Perù nds:Peru pl:Peru pt:Peru ro:Peru rmy:Peru rm:Peru qu:Piruw ru:Перу se:Peru sa:पेरु sq:Peru scn:Perù simple:Peru sk:Peru sl:Peru sr:Перу sh:Peru fi:Peru sv:Peru tl:Peru ta:பெரு tet:Perú th:ประเทศเปรู vi:Peru tg:Перу tr:Peru uk:Перу vo:Peruvän wo:Peru yi:פערו cbk-zam:Peru diq:Peru bat-smg:Perū zh:秘鲁