Manga

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Version du 24 décembre 2007 à 17:34

The kanji for "manga" from Seasonal Passersby (Shiki no Yukikai), 1798, by Santō Kyōden and Kitao Shigemasa.

Modèle:Nihongo Modèle:Audio is the Japanese word for comics (sometimes called komikku コミック) and print cartoons.<ref name="Lent">Lent, John A. 2001. "Introduction." In John A. Lent, editor. Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 3-4. ISBN 0-8248-2471-7.</ref><ref name = "Gravett">Gravett, Paul. 2004. "Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics." NY: Harper Design. ISBN 1-85669-391-0. p. 8.</ref><ref> Characteristics of Japanese Manga

. dnp.co.jp

. Retrieved on 2007-09-18. </ref> In their modern form, manga date from shortly after World War II<ref name="Kinsella">« »</ref> but have a long, complex history in earlier Japanese art.<ref name="Kern">« »</ref><ref name="Ito">« »</ref><ref name="Schodt 1986">Schodt, Frederik L. (1986). "Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics." Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 978-0870117527.</ref> In Japan, manga are widely read by people of all ages,<ref name = "Gravett"/> so that a broad range of subjects and topics occur in manga, including action-adventure, romance, sports and games, historical drama, comedy, science fiction and fantasy, mystery, horror, sexuality, and business and commerce, among others.<ref name="Gravett" /> Since the 1950s, manga have steadily become a major part of the Japanese publishing industry,<ref name="Kinsella" /><ref name="Schodt 1996">Schodt, Frederik L. (1996). "Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga." Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1880656235.</ref> representing a 481 billion yen market in Japan in 2006<ref name="ComiPress"> 2006 Japanese Manga Market Drops Below 500 Billion Yen

. ComiPress 
 
 (2007-03-10)

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref> (approximately $4.4 billion dollars).<ref> 500 billion yen in dollars

. Google 
 
 (2007-09-14)

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref> Manga have also become increasingly popular worldwide.<ref name="Wong 2006">« »</ref><ref name="Patten">Patten, Fred. 2004. Watching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1880656921.</ref> In 2006, the United States manga market was $175-200 million.<ref name="Cha"> Cha , Kai-Ming

     (2007-04-03)
   
.    Viz Media and Manga in the U.S 
. Publishers Weekly

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref>

Manga are typically printed in black-and-white,<ref>Katzenstein, Peter. J. & Takashi Shiraishi 1997. Network Power: Japan in Asia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801483738. http://books.google.com/books?id=-Fc8J60XGZAC&pg=PA249&lpg=PA249&dq=manga+typically+black+white&source=web&ots=uMDXzjpj_b&sig=IDoYmSGrGHeleX-XRqsHQmKDUgU}}</ref> although some full-color manga exist (e.g. Colorful).<ref>« »</ref> In Japan, manga are usually serialized in telephone book-size manga magazines, often containing many stories each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> If the series is successful, collected chapters may be republished in paperback books called tankōbon.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> A manga artist (mangaka in Japanese) typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company.<ref name="Kinsella" /> If a manga series is popular enough, it may be animated after or even during its run.<ref>« »</ref> Although sometimes manga are drawn centering on previously existing live-action or animated films.<ref> Johnston-O'Neill , Tom

     (08/03/2007)
   
.    Finding the International in Comic Con International 
. The San Diego Participant Observer

. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. </ref><ref> Brienza , Casey

     (July 13, 2007)
   
.    Videogame Visions Udon's 'Street Fighter' titles join game-based manga scene 
. Wizard

. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. </ref> (e.g. Star Wars).<ref>Modèle:Cite comic</ref>

Manga as a term outside of Japan refers specifically to comics originally published in Japan.<ref name="Merriam-Webster"> Definition of manga

. Merriam-Webster Online

.</ref> However, manga and manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in other parts of the world, particularly in Korea ("manhwa")<ref> Manhwa: 만화

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref> and in the People's Republic of China, including Hong Kong ("manhua").<ref name="Wong 2002">« »</ref> In France, "la nouvelle manga" is a form of bande dessinée drawn in styles influenced by Japanese manga.<ref>« »</ref> In the U.S., manga-like comics are called Amerimanga, world manga, or original English-language manga (OEL manga).<ref> World Manga

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref>

The Kyoto International Manga Museum maintains a very large website listing manga published in Japanese.<ref name="KyMM">http://www.kyotomm.com/english/about_5.html</ref>

Sommaire

1 Etymology
2 History and characteristics
- 2.1 Overview of ideas
- 2.2 After World War II
  - 2.2.1 Shōjo manga
  - 2.2.2 Shōjo manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to today
3 Publications
4 International markets
- 4.1 United States
- 4.2 Europe and the UK
5 Aesthetic influences on cartooning in the US and France
6 International Manga Award
7 See also
8 References

Etymology

Manga, literally translated, means "whimsical pictures". The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden's picturebook "Shiji no yukikai" (1798), and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's "Manga hyakujo" (1814) and the celebrated Hokusai manga containing assorted drawings from the sketchbook of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai. The first user of the word "manga" as its modern usage is Rakuten Kitazawa.<ref name="Manga no Jiten">Isao Shimizu, Nihon Manga no Jiten p53-54 p102-103, ISBN 4-385-15586-0</ref>

History and characteristics

Main article: History of manga

Overview of ideas

Image:京都国際マンガミュージアム.jpg

The Kyoto International Manga Museum has an extensive collection of historical and contemporary manga.

Historians and writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in the relative importance they attribute to the role of cultural and historical events following World War II versus the role of pre-War, Meiji, and pre-Meiji Japanese culture and art.

The first view emphasizes events occurring during and after the U.S. Occupation of Japan (1945-1952), and stresses that manga was strongly shaped by United States cultural influences, including U.S. comics brought to Japan by the GIs and by images and themes from U.S. television, film, and cartoons (especially Disney).<ref name="Kinsella" /><ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Kinsella also sees a central role for how the booming post-war Japanese publishing industry helped create a consumer-oriented society in which publishing giants like Kodansha could shape popular taste.<ref name="Kinsella" />

Japanese writers like Takashi Murakami have also stressed events after WWII, but Murakami sees Japan's staggering defeat and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as having created long-lasting scars on the Japanese artistic psyche, which, in this view, lost its previously virile confidence in itself and sought solace in harmless and cute ("kawaii") images.<ref name="Murakami">« »</ref> However, Takayumi Tatsumi sees a special role for a transpacific economic and cultural transnationalism that created a postmodern and shared international youth culture of cartooning, film, television, music, and related popular arts, which was, for Tatsumi the crucible in which modern manga have developed.<ref name="Tatsumi">« »</ref>

For Murakami and Tatsumi, transnationalism (or globalization) refers specifically to the flow of cultural and subcultural material from one nation to another.<ref name="Murakami" /><ref name="Tatsumi" /> In their usage, the term does not refer to international corporate expansion, nor to international tourism, nor to cross-border international personal friendships, but to ways in which artistic, aesthetic, and intellectual traditions influence each other across national boundaries.<ref name="Murakami" /><ref name="Tatsumi" /> An example of cultural transnationalism is the creation of Star Wars films in the United States, their transformation into manga by Japanese artists, and the marketing of Star Wars manga to the United States.<ref> Phantom Goes Manga

. StarWars.com 
 
 (January 05, 2000)

. Retrieved on 2007-09-18. </ref> Another example is the transfer of hip-hop culture from the United States to Japan.<ref name="Condry">« »</ref> Wong also sees a major role for transnationalism in the recent history of manga.<ref name="Wong 2006" />

However, other writers stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions as central to the history of manga. They include Frederik L. Schodt,<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Schodt 1996" /> Kinko Ito,<ref name="Ito 2000">« »</ref> and Adam L. Kern.<ref name ="Kern 2006">Kern, Adam (2006). Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyoshi of Edo Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN-10: 0674022661.</ref><ref name="Kern 2007">« »</ref>

Schodt points to the existence in the 1200s of illustrated picture scrolls like the Tobae scrolls that told stories in sequential images with humor and wit.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Schodt also stresses continuities of aesthetic style and vision between ukiyo-e and shunga woodblock prints and modern manga (all three fulfill Eisner's criteria<ref name="Eisner">« »</ref> for sequential art). Schodt also sees a particularly significant role for kamishibai, a form of street theater where itinerant artists displayed pictures in a light box while narrating the story to audiences in the street.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Torrance has pointed to similarities between modern manga and the Osaka popular novel between the 1890s and 1940, and argues that the development of widespread literacy in Meiji and post-Meiji Japan helped create audiences for stories told in words and pictures.<ref name="Torrance">« »</ref>

Kinko Ito also roots manga historically in aesthetic continuity with pre-Meiji art, but she sees its post-World War II history as driven in part by consumer enthusiasm for the rich imagery and narrative of the newly developing manga tradition. Ito describes how this tradition has steadily produced new genres and markets, e.g., for girls' (shōjo) manga in the late 1960s and for Ladies Comics (redisu) in the 1980s.<ref name="Ito 2000" />

Kern has suggested that kibyoshi, illustrated picture books from the late 1700s, may have been the world's first comic books.<ref name ="Kern 2006" /> These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.<ref name ="Kern 2006" /> Although Kern does not believe that kibyoshi were a direct forerunner of manga, nonetheless, for Kern the existence of kibyoshi points to a Japanese willingness to mix words and pictures in a popular story-telling medium.<ref name="Kern 2007" /> The first recorded use of the term "manga" to mean "whimsical or impromptu pictures" comes from this tradition in 1798, which, Kern points out, predates Katsushika Hokusai's better known later usage by several decades (Kern, 2006, pp. 139-144; Figure 3.3).<ref name ="Kern 2006" />

Similarly, Inoue sees manga as being a mixture of image- and word-centered elements, each pre-dating the U.S.A. occupation of Japan. In his view, Japanese image-centered or "pictocentric" art ultimately derives from Japan's long history of engagement with Chinese graphic art, whereas word-centered or "logocentric" art, like the novel, was stimulated by social and economic needs of Meiji and pre-War Japanese nationalism for a populace unified by a common written language. Both fuse in what Inoue sees as a symbiosis in manga.<ref name="Inoue">« »</ref>

Thus, these scholars see the history of manga as involving historical continuities and discontinuities between the aesthetic and cultural past as it interacts with post-World War II innovation and transnationalism.

After World War II

Modern manga originates in the Occupation (1945-1952) and post-Occupation years (1952-early 1960s), when a previously militaristic and ultranationalist Japan was rebuilding its political and economic infrastructure.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref>This section draws primarily on the work of Frederik Schodt (1986, 1996, 2007) and of Paul Gravett (2004). Time-lines for manga history are available in Mechademia, Gravett, and in articles by Go Tchiei 1998a.</ref> Although U.S. Occupation censorship policies specifically targeted art and writing that glorified war and Japanese militarism,<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> those policies did not prevent the publication of other kinds of material, including manga. Furthermore, the 1947 Japanese Constitution (Article 21) prohibited all forms of censorship.<ref name="Kodansha">« »</ref> One result was an explosion of artistic creativity in this period.<ref name="Schodt 1986" />

Image:Tezuka cinematographic.jpg

Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique as seen in Shin Takarajima (New Treasure Island).

In the forefront of this period are two manga series and characters that influenced much of the future history of manga. These are Osamu Tezuka's Mighty Atom (Astro Boy in the United States; begun in 1951) and Machiko Hasegawa's Sazae-san (begun in 1946).

Astro Boy was both a superpowered robot and a naive little boy.<ref name="Schodt 2007">« »</ref> Tezuka never explained why Astro Boy had such a highly developed social conscience nor what kind of robot programming could make him so deeply affiliative.<ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Both seem innate to Astro Boy, and represent a Japanese sociality and community-oriented masculinity differing very much from the Emperor-worship and militaristic obedience enforced during the previous period of Japanese imperialism.<ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Astro Boy quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere as an icon and hero of a new world of peace and the renunciation of war, as also seen in Article 9 of the Japanese constitution.<ref name="Kodansha" /><ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Similar themes occur in Tezuka's New World and Metropolis.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Schodt 2007" />

By contrast, Sazae-san (meaning "Ms. Sazae") was drawn starting in 1946 by Machiko Hasegawa, a young woman artist who made her heroine a stand-in for millions of Japanese men and especially women rendered homeless by the war.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> Sazae-san does not face an easy or simple life, but, like Astro Boy, she too is highly affiliative and is deeply involved with her immediate and extended family. She is also a very strong character, in striking contrast to the officially sanctioned Neo-Confucianist principles of feminine meekness and obedience to the "good wife, wise mother" (ryōsai kenbo, りょうさいけんぼ; 良妻賢母) ideal taught by the previous military regime.<ref name="Uno">Uno, Kathleen S. 1993. "The death of 'Good Wife, Wise Mother'." In: Andrew Gordon (editor) Postwar Japan as History. Berkeley, CA: University of California. pp. 293-322. ISBN 0520074750. </ref><ref name="Ohinata">Ohinata, Masami 1995 "The mystique of motherhood: A key to understanding social change and family problems in Japan." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 199-211. ISBN 978-1558610941.</ref><ref name="Yoshizumi">Yoshizumi, Kyoko 1995 "Marriage and family: Past and present." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 183-197. ISBN 978-1558610941.</ref> Sazae-san faces the world with cheerful resilience,<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Lee 2000">Lee, William (2000). "From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0765605610.</ref> what Hayao Kawai calls a "woman of endurance."<ref name="Kawai">Kawai, Hayao. 1996. The Japanese Psyche: Major Motifs in the Fairy Tales of Japan. Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications. Chapter 7, pp. 125-142.</ref> Sazae-san sold more than 62 million copies over the next half century.<ref name="Schodt 1997">« »</ref>

Image:Sazae-san kamishibai.jpg

A kami-shibai story teller from Sazae-san by Machiko Hasegawa. Sazae is the woman with her hair in a bun.

Tezuka and Hasegawa were also both stylistic innovators. In Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Hasegawa's focus on daily life and on women's experience also came to characterize later shojo manga.<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Lee 2000" /><ref name="Sanchez"> Sanchez, Frank (1997-2003). "Hist 102: History of Manga." http://www.animeinfo.org/animeu/hist102.html. AnimeInfo. Retrieved on 2007-09-11.</ref>

Between 1950 and 1969, increasingly large audiences for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres, shōnen manga aimed at boys and shōjo manga aimed at girls.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Toku 2005">« »</ref> Up to 1969, shōjo manga was drawn primarily by adult men for young female readers.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Thorn 2001">« »</ref>

Two very popular and influential male-authored manga for girls from this period were Tezuka's 1953-1956 Ribon no Kishi (Princess Knight or Knight in Ribbons) and Matsuteru Yokoyama's 1966 Mahōtsukai Sarii (Little Witch Sally).<ref name="Schodt 1986" />

Ribon no Kishi dealt with the adventures of Princess Sapphire of a fantasy kingdom who had been born with male and female souls, and whose sword-swinging battles and romances blurred the boundaries of otherwise rigid gender roles.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Sarii, the pre-teen princess heroine of Mahōtsukai Sarii,<ref>Sarii is the Japanese spelling and pronunciation of the English-language name "Sally." The word mahōtsukai literally means "magic operator," someone who can use and control magic. It does not mean "witch" or "magical girl" (which is mahō shōjo in Japanese), because tsukai is not a gendered word in Japanese. This use of an English-language name with a Japanese descriptive word is an example of transnationalism in Tatsumi's sense.</ref> came from her home in the magical lands to live on Earth, go to school, and perform a variety of magical good deeds for her friends and schoolmates.<ref name="Yoshida">Modèle:Cite paper</ref> Yokoyama's Mahōtsukai Sarii was influenced by the U.S. TV sitcom Bewitched,<ref> Johnson , Melissa

     (June 27, 2006)
   
.    Bewitched by Magical Girls 
. FPS Magazine

. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. </ref> but unlike Samantha, the main character of Bewitched, a married woman with her own daughter, Sarii is a pre-teenager who faces the problems of growing up and mastering the responsibilities of forthcoming adulthood. Mahōtsukai Sarii helped create the now very popular mahō shōjo or "magical girl" subgenre of later manga.<ref name="Yoshida" /> Both series were and still are very popular.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Yoshida" />

Shōjo manga

In 1969, a group of women mangaka later called the Year 24 Group (also known as Magnificent 24s) made their shōjo manga debut (year 24 comes from the Japanese name for 1949, when many of these artists were born).<ref>Gravett, 2004, op. cit., pp.78-80.</ref><ref>Lent, 2001, op. cit., pp. 9-10.</ref> The group included Hagio Moto, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Oshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Riyoko Yamagishi<ref name="Gravett" /> and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> Thereafter, shōjo manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Thorn 2001" />

In 1971, Ikeda began her immensely popular shōjo manga Berusaiyu no Bara (The Rose of Versailles), a story of Oscar François de Jarjayes, a cross-dressing woman who was a Captain in Marie Antoinette's Palace Guards in pre-Revolutionary France.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Tchiei"> Tchiei , Go

     (1998)
   
.    Shojo Manga: A Unique Genre

. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. </ref> In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille. Likewise, Hagio Moto's work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women's roles and activities <ref name="Uno" /><ref name="Ohinata" /><ref name="Yoshizumi" /> as in her 1975 They Were Eleven, a shōjo science fiction story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.<ref>Hagio Moto 1975/1996 "They Were Eleven." In: Matt Thorn (editor) Four Shojo Stories. San Francisco: Viz Media. ISBN 1569310556. Original story published 1975; U.S. edition 1996.</ref>

These women artists also created considerable stylistic innovations. In its focus on the heroine's inner experiences and feelings, shōjo manga are "picture poems"<ref>Schodt, 1986, op. cit., p 88.</ref> with delicate and complex designs that often eliminate panel borders completely to create prolonged, non-narrative extensions of time.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Thorn 2001" /><ref name="McCloud">McCloud, Scott. 1993. Understanding Comics. New York: Paradox Press. pp. 77-82.</ref> All of these innovations – strong and independent female characters, intense emotionality, and complex design – remain characteristic of shōjo manga up to the present day.<ref name="Sanchez" /><ref name="Tchiei" />

Shōjo manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to today

In the following decades (1975-present), shōjo manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres.<ref name="Ogi">Ōgi, Fusami 2004. "Female subjectivity and shōjo (girls) manga (Japanese comics): shōjo in Ladies' Comics and Young Ladies' Comics." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(4):780-803.</ref> Major subgenres have included romance, superheroines, and redisu / josei 女性じょせい, whose boundaries are sometimes indistinguishable from each other and from shōnen manga.<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Schodt 1996" />

In modern shōjo manga romance, love is a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self-realization.<ref name="Drazen">Drazen, Patrick 2003. Anime Explosion!: the What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge.</ref> Japanese manga/anime critic Eri Izawa defines romance as symbolizing "the emotional, the grand, the epic; the taste of heroism, fantastic adventure, and the melancholy; passionate love, personal struggle, and eternal longing" set into imaginative, individualistic, and passionate narrative frameworks.<ref name="Izawa">Izawa, Eri 2000 ."The romantic, passionate Japanese in anime: A look at the hidden Japanese soul." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 138-153. ISBN 978-0765605610. Accessed September 23, 2007.</ref>

These romances are sometimes long narratives that can deal with distinguishing between false and true love, coping with sexual intercourse, and growing up in a complex world, themes inherited by subsequent animated versions of the story.<ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Drazen" /><ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p. 14.</ref> These "coming of age" or bildungsroman themes occur in both shōjo and shōnen manga.<ref name="fn1">"The transformation into a superhero is in fact an allegory of becoming an adult." From Graillat, Ludovic 2006-2007 "America vs. Japan: the Influence of American Comics on Manga." Refractory: A Journal of Entertainment Media, Volume 10. Accessed September 23, 2007. Literally, in German, bildungs = education and roman = novel, hence a novel about the education of the protagonist in "the ways of the world."</ref><ref name="Moretti">Moretti, Franco 1987. The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture. London: Verso. ISBN 1859842984.</ref>

In the bildungsroman, the protagonist must deal with adversity and conflict,<ref name="Moretti" /> and examples in shōjo manga of romantic conflict are common. They include Miwa Ueda's Peach Girl,<ref name="Peach1"> Beveridge , Chris

     (05/14/2007)
   
.    Peach Girl Vol. #1 (also w/box) (of 6) 
. Anime on DVD

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref><ref name="Peach2"> Peach Girl Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Fuyumi Soryo's Mars,<ref name="Mars"> MARS Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and, for mature readers, Moyoco Anno's Happy Mania,<ref name="Thorn 2001" /><ref name="Mania"> Happy Mania Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Yayoi Ogawa's Tramps Like Us,<ref name="Tramps"> Tramps Like Us (manga)

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Ai Yazawa's Nana.<ref name="Nana1"> Aoki , Deb

.    Nana by Ai Yazawa - Series Profile and Story Summary 
. About.com

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref><ref name="Nana2"> Bertschy , Zac

     (Dec 26 2005)
   
.    NANA G.novel 1 
. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> In another shōjo manga bildungsroman narrative device, the young heroine is transported to an alien place or time where she meets strangers and must survive on her own (including Hagio Moto's They Were Eleven,<ref name="Moto"> Randall , Bill

.    Three By Moto Hagio 
. The Comics Journal

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Kyoko Hikawa's From Far Away,<ref name="Far"> King , Patrick

.    From Far Away Vol. 2 
. Anime Fringe

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Yû Watase's Fushigi Yûgi: The Mysterious Play,<ref name="Fushigi"> Fushigi Yugi (manga)

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Chiho Saito's The World Exists For Me).<ref name="World"> The World Exists for Me Volume 2

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>

Yet another such device involves meeting unusual or strange people and beings, for example, Natsuki Takaya's Fruits Basket<ref name="FB"> Fruits Basket Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>—one of the most popular shōjo manga in the United States<ref name="ICV2"> "Top 50 Manga Properties for Spring 2007: Fruits Basket." ICv2 Guide to Manga, Number 45, pp. 6, 8.</ref>—whose orphaned heroine Tohru must survive living in the woods in a house filled with people who can transform into the animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Harako Iida's Crescent Moon, heroine Mahiru meets a group of supernatural beings, finally to discover that she herself too has a supernatural ancestry when she and a young tengu demon fall in love.<ref name="Cresc"> Crescent Moon Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>

With the superheroines, shōjo manga continued to break away from neo-Confucianist norms of female meekness and obedience.<ref name="Schodt 1996" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /> Naoko Takeuchi's Sailor Moon (Bishōjo Senshi Seiramun: "Pretty Girl Soldier Sailor Moon") is a sustained, 18-volume narrative about a group of young heroines simultaneously heroic and introspective, active and emotional, dutiful and ambitious.<ref name="Allison">Allison, Anne 2000. "Sailor Moon: Japanese superheroes for global girls." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 259-278. ISBN 978-0765605610.</ref><ref name="Grigsby">Grigsby, Mary 1999 "The social production of gender as reflected in two Japanese culture industry products: Sailormoon and Crayon Shinchan." In: John A. Lent, editor Themes and Issues in Asian Cartooning: Cute, Cheap, Mad, and Sexy. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. pp. 183-210. ISBN 0879727802.</ref> The combination proved extremely successful, and Sailor Moon became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats.<ref name="Allison" /><ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p 92.</ref> Another example is CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth, whose three young heroines, Hikaru, Umi, and Fuu, are magically transported to the world of Cephiro to become armed magical warriors in the service of saving Cephiro from internal and external enemies.<ref name="MKR1"> Magic Knight Rayearth (manga)

. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref><ref name="MKR2"> Magic Knight Rayearth I Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>

The superheroine subgenre also extensively developed the notion of teams (sentai) of girls working together,<ref name="Poitras">Poitras, Gilles 2001. Anime Essentials: Everything a Fan Needs to Know. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge. ISBN 1880656531.</ref> like the Sailor Senshi in Sailor Moon, the Magic Knights in Magic Knight Rayearth, and the Mew Mew girls from Mia Ikumi's Tokyo Mew Mew.<ref name="Mew"> Tokyo Mew Mew Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> By today, the superheroine narrative template has been widely used and parodied within the shōjo manga tradition (e.g., Nao Yazawa's Wedding Peach<ref name="Wedding"> Wedding Peach

. Viz Media

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Hyper Rune by Tamayo Akiyama<ref name="Rune"> Cooper , Liann

     (November 20 2004)
   
.    RIGHT TURN ONLY!! Sugar Rush 
. Anime News Network

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>) and outside that tradition, e.g., in bishōjo comedies like Kanan's Galaxy Angel.<ref name="Gal"> Galaxy Angel

. Broccoli Books

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>

In the mid-1980s and thereafter, as girls who had read shōjo manga as teenagers matured and entered the job market, shōjo manga elaborated subgenres directed at women in their 20s and 30s.<ref name="Ogi" /> This "Ladies Comic" subgenre (in Japanese, redisu レディース, redikomi レヂィーコミ, and josei) has dealt with themes of young adulthood: jobs, the emotions and problems of sexual intercourse, and friendships or love among women.<ref name="Ogi" /><ref name="Ito1">Ito, Kinko 2002. "The world of Japanese 'Ladies Comics': From romantic fantasy to lustful perversion." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(1):68-85.</ref><ref name="Ito2">Ito, Kinko 2003. "Japanese Ladies' Comics as agents of socialization: The lessons they teach." International Journal of Comic Art, 5(2):425-436.</ref><ref name="Jones">Jones, Gretchen 2002. "'Ladies' Comics': Japan's not-so-underground market in pornography for women." U.S.-Japan Women's Journal (English Supplement), Number 22, pp. 3-31.</ref><ref name="Shamoon">Shamoon, Deborah 2004. "Office slut and rebel flowers: The pleasures of Japanese pornographic comics for women." In: Linda Williams (editor) Porn Studies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 77-103.</ref>

Redisu manga retains many of the narrative stylistics of shōjo manga but has been drawn by and written for adult women.<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp 124-129.</ref> Redisu manga has been often, but not always, sexually explicit, but sexuality has characteristically been set into complex narratives of pleasure and erotic arousal combined with emotional risk.<ref name="Schodt 1996" /><ref name="Ito1" /><ref name="Ito2" /> Examples include Ramiya Ryo's Luminous Girls,<ref name="Ryo">Ramiya Ryo (no date) "Luminous Girls." Tokyo: France Shoin Comic House. ISBN 4829682019.</ref> Masako Watanabe's Kinpeibai<ref>Toku, 2005, op. cit., p. 59.</ref> and the work of Shungicu Uchida<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 173-177.</ref> Another subgenre of shōjo-redisu manga deals with emotional and sexual relationships among women (akogare and yuri),<ref name="Yuri"> Bando, Kishiji (no date) "Shoujo Yuri Manga Guide." Accessed September 23, 2007.</ref> in work by Erica Sakurazawa,<ref name="Sakurazawa"> Font , Dillon

.    Erica Sakurazawa's Nothing But Loving You 
. Anime Fringe

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Ebine Yamaji,<ref name="Yamaji"> Fan translations of Ebine Yamaji's yuri mangas

. The Gay Comics List

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Chiho Saito.<ref name="PCUtena"> Perper, Timothy & Martha Cornog 2006. "In the Sound of the Bells: Freedom and Revolution in Revolutionary Girl Utena." Mechademia, An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:183-186.</ref> Other subgenres of shōjo-redisu manga have also developed, e.g., fashion (oshare) manga, like Ai Yazawa's Paradise Kiss<ref name="Masanao">Masanao, Amano 2004. Manga Design. Koln, Germany: Taschen GMBH. pp. 526-529. ISBN 3822825913.</ref><ref name="PKiss"> Paradise Kiss Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and horror-vampire-gothic manga, like Matsuri Hino's Vampire Knight,<ref> Vampire Knight by Matsuri Hino

. Shojo Beat

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Kaori Yuki's Cain Saga,<ref name="Cain"> Kaori Yuki

. Shojo Beat

. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Mitsukazu Mihara's DOLL,<ref name="DOLL"> Doll Volume 1

. Tokyopop

. Retrieved on 2007-11-14. </ref> which interact with street fashions, costume play ("cosplay"), J-Pop music, and goth subcultures in complex ways.<ref name ="Fruits">Shoichi Aoki 2001 Fruits. New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0714840831.</ref><ref name="Winge">Winge, Theresa 2006. "Costuming the imagination: Origins of anime and manga cosplay." Mechademia: An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:65-76.</ref><ref name="Macias">Macias, Patrick, Evers, Izumi, and Nonaka, Kazumi (illustrator). 2004.Japanese Schoolgirl Inferno: Tokyo Teen Fashion Subculture Handbook. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books. ISBN 9780811856904.</ref>

By the start of the 21st century, manga for women and girls thus represented a broad spectrum of material for pre- and early teenagers to material for adult women.

Publications

Image:Manga reading direction.png

The reading direction in a traditional manga.

In Japan, manga constitutes a 40.67 billion Yen (359 million USD) publication industry for 2007.<ref name="IndustrySize"> 2007年のオタク市場規模は1866億円―メディアクリエイトが白書

. Inside for Business 
 
 (2007-12-18)

. Retrieved on 2007-12-18. </ref> On average many volumes of manga are printed annually. The manga industry expanded worldwide. Distribution companies license and reprint manga into their native languages.

When a series has been running for a while, the stories are usually collected together and printed in dedicated book-sized volumes, called tankōbon. These are the equivalent of U.S. comic's trade paperbacks. These volumes use higher-quality paper, and are useful to those who want to "catch up" with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive. Recently, "deluxe" versions have also been printed as readers have got older and the need for something special grew. Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 yen (about $1 U.S. dollar) each to compete with the used book market.

Manga are primarily classified by the age and gender of the target audience. In particular, books and magazines sold to boys (shōnen) and girls (shōjo) have distinctive cover art and are placed on different shelves in most bookstores. Due to cross-readership, consumer response is not limited by demographics. For example, male readers subscribing to a series intended for girls and so on.

Japan also has manga cafés, or manga kissa (kissa is an abbreviation of kissaten). At a manga kissa, people drink coffee and read manga, and sometimes stay there overnight.

Traditionally, manga are written from top to bottom and right to left, as this is the traditional reading pattern of the Japanese written language. Some publishers of translated manga keep this format, but other publishers flip the pages horizontally, changing the reading direction to left to right, so as not to confuse foreign audiences or traditional comics consumers. This practice is known as "flipping". For the most part, the criticisms suggest that flipping goes against the original intentions of the creator (for example, if a person wears a shirt that reads "MAY" on it, and gets flipped, then the word is altered to "YAM"). Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts, such as a car being depicted with gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right.

Magazines

Manga magazines usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20–40 pages allocated to each series per issue. These manga magazines, or "anthology magazines", as they are also known (colloquially "phone books"), are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages long. Manga magazines also contain one-shot comics and various four-panel yonkoma (equivalent to comic strips). Manga series can run for many years if they are successful. Manga artists sometimes start out with a few "one-shot" manga projects just to try to get their name out. If these are successful and receive good reviews, they are continued.

Some relatively well-known publications are:

Other magazines such as the anime magazine Newtype features single chapters within their monthly periodicals.

Dōjinshi

Some manga artists will produce extra, sometimes unrelated material, which are known as omake (lit. "bonus" or "extra"). They might also publish their unfinished drawings or sketches, known as oekaki (lit. "sketches"). Unofficial fan-made comics are also called dōjinshi. Some dōjinshi continue with a series' story or write an entirely new one using its characters, much like fan fiction. In 2007, doujinshi sold for 27.73 billion Yen (245 million USD).<ref name="IndustrySize" />

Dōjinshi is produced by small amateur publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market in a similar fashion to small-press independently published comic books in the United States. Comiket, the largest comic book convention in the world with over 400,000 gathering in 3 days, is devoted to dōjinshi.

Gekiga

Gekiga literally means "drama pictures" and refers to a form of aesthetic realism in manga.<ref name="SchodtG">Schodt, 1986, op. cit., pp. 68-73.</ref><ref name="GravettG">Gravett, 2004, op. cit., pp. 38-42.</ref> Gekiga style drawing is emotionally dark, often starkly realistic, sometimes very violent, and focuses on the day-in, day-out grim realities of life, often drawn in gritty and unpretty fashions.<ref name="SchodtG"/><ref name = "GravettGekiga"> Gravett , Paul

.    Gekiga: The Flipside of Manga

. Retrieved on 2007-12-20. </ref> Gekiga arose in the late 1950s and 1960s partly from left-wing student and working class political activism<ref name="SchodtG"/><ref name="Isao">« »</ref> and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like Tatsumi Yoshihiro with existing manga.<ref>Isao, 2001, op. cit., pp. 147-149.</ref><ref name="Nunez">« »</ref> Examples include Sampei Shirato 's 1959-1962 Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments (Ninja Bugeichō), the story of Kagemaru, the leader of a peasant rebellion in the 1500s, which dealt directly with oppression and class struggle,<ref name="SchodtG1">Schodt, 1986, op. cit., pp. 70-71.</ref> and Hiroshi Hirata's Satsuma Gishiden, about uprisings against the Tokugawa shogunate.<ref name="Hirata"> Search results: Hirata

. Dark Horse

. Retrieved on 2007-12-19. </ref>

As the social protest of these early years waned, gekiga shifted in meaning towards socially conscious, mature drama and towards the avant-garde.<ref name="GravettG"/><ref name="Nunez" /><ref> Takeo , Udagawa

     (2007-10-15)
   
.    Home Manga Zombie: Manga Zombie - Preface 
. Comi Press

. Retrieved on 2007-12-19. </ref> Examples include Koike and Kojima's Lone Wolf and Cub<ref>Schodt, 1986, op. cit., p. 72.</ref> and Akira, an apocalyptic tale of motorcycle gangs, street war, and inexplicable transformations of the children of a future Tokyo.<ref> Weiss , Jennifer

     (2007-11-01)
   
.    The Manga Graphic Novel: A Primer 
. Associated Content

. Retrieved on 2007-12-20. </ref> Another example is Osamu Tezuka's 1976 manga MW, a bitter story of the aftermath of the storage and possibly deliberate release of poison gas by US armed forces based in Okinawa years after World War II.<ref>« »</ref> Gekiga and the social consciousness it embodies remain alive in modern-day manga. An example is Ikebukuro West Gate Park from 2001 by Ira Ishida and Sena Aritou, a story of street thugs, rape, and vengeance set on the social margins of the wealthy Ikebukuro district of Tokyo.<ref> Pfaender , Fabien

.    IWGP, t.1 
. planetebd.com

. Retrieved on 2007-12-20. </ref>

International markets

The influence of manga on international cartooning has grown considerably in the last two decades.<ref name="wired">Pink, Daniel H. 2007. "Japan, Ink: Inside the Manga Industrial Complex." Wired Magazine, Issue 15.11, October 22. http://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/magazine/15-11/ff_manga "Japanese comics have gripped the global imagination," first page. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Wong2"> Wong, Wendy (No Date) "The Presence of Manga in Europe and North America." http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Influence refers to effects on comics markets outside of Japan and to aesthetic effects on comics artists internationally.

United States

Manga were introduced only gradually into US markets, first in association with anime and then independently.<ref name="Patten"/> Some US fans were aware of manga in the 1970s and early 1980s.<ref name="Patten2">In 1987, "...Japanese comics were more legendary than accessible to American readers", Patten, 2004, op. cit., p. 259.</ref> However, anime was initially more accessible than manga to US fans,<ref name="NapierFan">For video-centered fan culture, see Susan J. Napier 2000 "Anime: From Akira to Princess Mononoke." NY:Palgrave. Appendix, pp. 239-256 (ISBN 0-312-23863-0) and Jonathan Clements & Helen McCarthy 2006 "The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917, Revised and Expanded Edition." Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press, pp. 475-476 (ISBN 1-933330-10-4).</ref> many of whom were college-age young people who found it easier to obtain, subtitle and exhibit video tapes of anime than translate, reproduce, and distribute tankobon-style manga books.<ref name="Patten"/><ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., chapter 7, pp. 305-340.</ref><ref name="Leonard">Leonard, Sean. 2003. "Progress Against the Law: Fan Distribution, Copyright, and the Explosive Growth of Japanese Animation." http://web.mit.edu/seantek/www/papers/progress-columns.pdf Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> One of the first manga translated into English and marketed in the US was Keiji Nakazawa's Barefoot Gen, an autobiographical story of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima issued by Leonard Rifas and Educomics (1980-1983).<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 309.</ref><ref name="Rifas">Rifas, Leonard. 2004. "Globalizing Comic Books from Below: How Manga Came to America." International Journal of Comic Art, 6(2):138-171.</ref> More manga were translated between the mid-1980s and 1990s, including Golgo 13 in 1986, Lone Wolf and Cub from [[First Comics in 1987, and Kamui, Area 88, and Mai the Psychic Girl, also in 1987 and all from Viz-Eclipse Comics.<ref>Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 37, 259-260.</ref><ref name="Thompson">Thompson, Jason. 2007. "Manga: The Complete Guide." NY: Ballantine Books. p. xv.</ref> Others soon followed, including Akira from Marvel Comics-Epic Comics and Appleseed from Eclipse Comics in 1988, and later Iczer-1 (Antarctic Press, 1994)<ref name="iczer1">http://www.animanga.com/Iczer/golden-warrior.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Ippongi Bang's F-111 Bandit (Antarctic Press, 1995).<ref name="Bang"> Bang, Ippongi. 1995. "F-III Bandit." San Antonio, TX:Antarctic Press.</ref>

In the 1980s to the mid-1990s, Japanese animation, like Akira, Dragonball, Ghost in the Shell, Neon Genesis Evangelion, and Pokémon, dominated the fan experience and the market compared to manga.<ref name="Leonard" /><ref>Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 52-73.</ref><ref name="Thompson2">Farago, Andrew, 2007. Interview: Jason Thompson. http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Matters changed when translator-entrpreneur Toren Smith founded Studio Proteus in 1986. Smith and Studio Proteus acted as an agent and translator of many Japanese manga, including Masamune Shirow's Appleseed and Kosuke Fujishima's Oh My Goddess, for Dark Horse and Eros Comix, eliminating the need for these publishers to seek their own contacts in Japan.<ref name="Schodt 1996A">Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 318-321.</ref><ref name="Smith">Gilman, Michael. (No Date.) "Interview: Toren Smith." http://www.darkhorse.com/news/interviews.php?id=622 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Simultaneously, the Japanese publisher Shogakukan opened a US market initiative with their US subsidiary Viz, enabling Viz to draw directly on Shogakukan's catalogue and translation skills.<ref name="Thompson">http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

The US manga market took an upturn with mid-1990s anime and manga versions of Masamune Shirow's Ghost in the Shell, translated by Frederik L. Schodt and Toren Smith and becoming very popular among fans.<ref name="GITSpopularity">Of 2918 respondents, 2008 ranked the anime as either Masterpiece, Excellent, or Very Good (http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=465). Of 178 respondents, 142 ranked the manga as either Masterpiece, Excellent, or Very Good (http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1590). See also Mays, Jonathan. February 21, 2003. Review: Ghost in the Shell. http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/ghost-in-the-shell/dvd. Accessed 2007-12-16.</ref> Another success of the mid-1990s was Sailor Moon.<ref>Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 50, 110, 124, 128, 135.</ref><ref name="MixxHist">Arnold, Adam. 2000. "Full Circle: The Unofficial History of MixxZine." http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/00.06/feature/1/index.php3 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> By 1995-1998, the Sailor Moon manga had been exported to over 23 countries, including China, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, most of Europe and North America.<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p. 95.</ref> In 1998, Mixx Entertainment-TokyoPop issued US manga book versions of Sailor Moon and CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth.<ref name="MSU">For the date and identification of the publisher as Mixx, see library records at http://www.lib.msu.edu/comics/rri/mrri/mixi.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> In 1996, Mixx Entertainment founded TokyoPop to publish manga in trade paperbacks and, like Viz, began aggressive marketing of manga to both young male and young female demographics.<ref name="Thompson2" /><ref name="MixxHist2">"Tangerine Dreams: Guide to Shoujo Manga and Anime" April 14, 2005. http://tangerine.astraldream.net/tokyopop.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

In the following years, manga became increasingly popular, and new publishers entered the field while the established publishers greatly expanded their catalogues.<ref> Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 308-319.</ref> As of December 2007, at least 15 US manga publishers have released some 1300-1400 titles.<ref name="Nmanga">The 1300-1400 number is an actual count from two different sources on the web. One is the web manga vendor Anime Castle, which, by actual count, lists 1315 different manga graphic novel titles (a "title" may have multiple volumes, like the 28 volumes of Lone Wolf and Cub).(http://www.animecastle.com/c-18291-graphic-novels-manga.aspx) This list contains some Korean manga and some OEL manga. The second source is Anime News Network, which lists manga publishers plus titles they have published. The total for US manga publishers comes to 1290 by actual count, including some Korean and OEL manga.(http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/company.php) Anime Castle lists another 91 adult graphic novel manga titles.(http://www.animecastle.com/c-18307-mature-adult-Graphic-novels.aspx) Websites accessed December 16-17, 2007.</ref> Simultaneously, mainstream US media began to discuss manga, with articles in the New York Times,<ref name="Glazer">Glazer, Sarah. 2005. "Manga for Girls." The New York Times, September 18. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/18/books/review/18glazer.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Time Magazine,<ref name="Coco">Masters, Coco. 2006. "America is Drawn to Manga." Time Magazine, Thursday, Aug. 10.</ref> the Wall Street Journal,<ref name="WSJ">Bosker, Bianca. 2007. "Manga Mania." Wall Street Journal, Aug. 31. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118851157811713921.html?mod=googlenews_wsj Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Wired Magazine.<ref name="wired" /> As of the end of 2007, manga is a major component of the US comics market.

Europe and the UK

The influence of manga on European cartooning is somewhat different than US experience. French art has borrowed from Japan since the 19th century (Japonisme<ref name="Japonisme">Berger, Klaus. 1992. Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521373212</ref>), and has its own highly developed tradition of bande dessinée cartooning.<ref name="BD">http://www.bande-dessinee.org/ Accessed 2007-12-19</ref> In France, imported manga has easily been assimilated into high art traditions. For example, Volumes 6 and 7 of Yu Aida's Gunslinger Girl center on a cyborg girl, a former ballet dancer named Petruchka. The Asuka edition of Volume 7 contains an essay about the ballet Petruchka by Russian composer Igor Stravinsky and first performed in Paris in 1911.<ref>Massé, Rodolphe. 2006. "La musique dans Gunslinger Girl." In Gunslinger Girl, Volume 7, pp. 178-179. Paris: Asuka Éditions.</ref> However, Francophone readership of manga is not limited to an artistic elite. Instead, beginning in the mid-1990s,<ref name="mahousu">http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> manga has proven very popular to a wide readership, accounting for about one-third of comics sales in France since 2004.<ref name="mahousu"><ref name="mangaFr">http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2004-02-04/manga-mania-in-france Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="cafe1">http://www.cafebabel.com/en/dossierprintversion.asp?Id=362 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> European publishers marketing manga translated into French include Asuka,<ref name="Asuka">http://www.asuka.fr/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Casterman,<ref name="Cas">http://bd.casterman.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Kana,<ref name="Kana1">Kana is an imprint of Dargaud-Lombard. http://www.mangakana.com/main.cfm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Kana2">http://www.mangakana.com/Univers.Series.cfm?Main=1 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Pika,<ref name="Pika">http://www.pika.fr/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> among others.<ref name="mahousu" /><ref name="CaList"> http://www.protoculture.ca/Catalog/mangaf.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> European publishers also translate manga into German,<ref name="Carlsen">http://www.carlsen.de/web/manga/index Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Egmont">http://www.manganet.de/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Italian,<ref name="Panini">Planet Manga, an imprint of Panini; http://www.paninicomics.it/Titolo.jsp Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Star">http://www.starcomics.com/uscite.php?tipo=manga Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Spanish,<ref name="DeAgo">http://www.planetadeagostinicomics.com/manga.asp Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Pon">http://www.ponentmon.com/new_pages/english/princ.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Dutch,<ref name="Holland1">Wolf, T. 2006 (March 8). "Anime and Manga players in the Dutch market." http://dutch-anime-manga.blogspot.com/2006/03/anime-and-manga-players-in-dutch.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and other languages.<ref name="Danish">For example, Danish: http://www.mangismo.com/dk/default.asp?page=serier Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Manga publishers based in the United Kingdom include Orionbooks/Gollancz<ref name="OB">http://www.orionbooks.co.uk/browse-list-Manga/Manga-Books-and-Authors.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Titan Books.<ref name="Titan1">http://forums.animeuknews.net/viewtopic.php?t=6282 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Titan2">http://www.uksfbooknews.net/2007/03/28/new-manga-range-from-titan-books-launching-in-april/print/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> US manga publishers have a strong marketing presence in the UK, e.g., the Tanoshimi line from Random House.<ref name="Tano">http://www.randomhouse.co.uk/tanoshimi/catalogue.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

Aesthetic influences on cartooning in the US and France

A number of US artists have drawn comics and cartoons influenced by manga. An early example was Vernon Grant, who drew manga-influenced comics while living in Japan in the late 1960s-early 1970s.<ref name="Grant">Stewart, Bhob. "Screaming Metal," The Comics Journal, no. 94, October, 1984.</ref> Others include Frank Miller's mid-1980s Ronin,<ref name="Ronin"> http://www.grovel.org.uk/ronin/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> William Warren and Toren Smith's 1988 The Dirty Pair,<ref name="DirtyPair">http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/the-dirty-pair/run-from-the-future Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Ben Dunn's 1993 Ninja High School,<ref name="Dunn1">http://bendunnmangaartist.100megs24.com/index.php?id=home&content=nhs/nhs Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Dunn2>http://www.atomicavenue.com/atomic/TitleDetail.aspx?TitleID=177 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Stan Sakai's 1984 Usagi Yojimbo,<ref name="Uyo">http://www.usagiyojimbo.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Manga Shi 2000 from Crusade Comics (1997).<ref name="MangaShi1"> Mishkin, Orfalas, and Asencio 1997 "Manga Shi 2000." Rego Park, NY: Crusade Comics. The artists are not further identified.</ref><ref name="MangaShi2"> http://www.crusadefinearts.com/news/20051130definitiveshi.php. The artwork is attributed to William Tucci. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

By the 21st Century, several US manga publishers began to produce work by US artists under the broad marketing label of manga.<ref name="Tai">Tai, Elizabeth. September 23, 2007. "Manga outside Japan." http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2007/9/23/lifebookshelf/18898783&sec=lifebookshelf Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> In 2002, I.C. Entertainment, formerly Studio Ironcat and now out of business, launched a series of manga by US artists called Amerimanga.<ref name="Amerimanga">Anime News Network. November 11, 2002. "I.C. Entertainment (formerly Ironcat) to launch anthology of Manga by American artists". http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2002-11-27/i.c-promotes-amerimanga Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Seven Seas Entertainment followed suit with World Manga.<ref name=SSE1>Anime News Network. May 10, 2006. "Correction: World Manga". http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-10/correction-world-manga. Seven Seas claimed to have coined the term in 2004; Forbes, Jake. (No date). "What is World Manga?" http://www.gomanga.com/news/features_gomanga_002.php Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Simultaneously, TokyoPop introduced original English-language manga (OEL manga) later renamed Global Manga.<ref name TPopOEL">Anime News Network. May 5, 2006. "Tokyopop To Move Away from OEL and World Manga Labels." http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-05/tokyopop-to-move-away-from-oel-and-world-manga-labels. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="GravettOEL">Gravett, Paul. 2006. "ORIGINAL MANGA: MANGA NOT 'MADE IN JAPAN'." http://www.paulgravett.com/articles/092_originalmanga/092_originalmanga.htm. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> TokyoPop is currently the largest US publisher of original English language manga.<ref name="Kiley">ICv2. September 7, 2007. Interview with Tokyopop's Mike Kiley, http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11249.html (part1), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11250.html (part2), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11251.html (part3). Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Robofish">Robofish. (no date). "Manga, American-style." http://www.tokyopop.com/Robofish/insidetp/688417.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Reid">Reid, Calvin. March 28, 2006. HarperCollins, "Tokyopop Ink Manga Deal." http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6319467.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

Francophone artists have also developed their own versions of manga, like Frédéric Boilet's la nouvelle manga.<ref name="Boilet">http://www.boilet.net/yukiko/yukiko.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Boilet has worked in France and in Japan, sometimes collaborating with Japanese artists.<ref name="Boilet1">Boilet, Frédéric. 2001. "Yukiko's Spinach." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933-0934-6.</ref><ref name="Boilet2">Boilet, Frédéric and Kan Takahama. 2004. "Mariko Parade." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933409-1-X.</ref> A Francophone Canadian example is the Montréal, Québec based artists' group MUSEBasement, which draws manga-style artwork.<ref name="Prevost">http://www.musebasement.com/about.php Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

International Manga Award

In May 2007, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced an international prize for manga of non-Japanese origin. The prize was awarded in late June 2007, with Hong Kong artist Lee Chi Ching winning first place. Runner ups were artists from Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Australia.<ref name=IntlAward1>http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2007-05-22/international-manga-award Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="IntlAward">http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2007/6/1174276_828.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>

References

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Catégories de la page: Artists' books | Fiction | Japanese words and phrases | Manga | Young adult fiction

Manga

Un article de Vev.

Version du 24 décembre 2007 à 17:34

Sommaire

Etymology

History and characteristics

Overview of ideas

After World War II

Shōjo manga

Shōjo manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to today

Publications

Magazines

Dōjinshi

Gekiga

International markets

United States

Europe and the UK

Aesthetic influences on cartooning in the US and France

International Manga Award

See also

References

Views

Outils personnels

sites

Navigation

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Boîte à outils

-{{voir homonymes|Manga (homonymie)}}
+{{Otheruses4|the comics created in Japan}}
-{{UnicodeJaponais}}
+{{Portalpar|Anime and Manga|Wikipe-tan without body.png}}
-{{Série manga}}
+[[Image:Manga in Jp.jpeg|thumb|The kanji for "manga" from ''Seasonal Passersby'' (''Shiki no Yukikai''), 1798, by Santō Kyōden and Kitao Shigemasa.]]
+{{nihongo|'''Manga'''|漫画}} ''{{Audio|Manga.ogg|listen}}'' is the [[Japanese language|Japanese]] word for [[comics]] (sometimes called ''komikku'' コミック) and print [[cartoon]]s.<ref name="Lent">Lent, John A. 2001. "Introduction." In John A. Lent, editor. ''Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books''. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 3-4. ISBN 0-8248-2471-7.</ref><ref name = "Gravett">Gravett, Paul. 2004. "Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics." NY: Harper Design. ISBN 1-85669-391-0. p. 8.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga2.html | title = Characteristics of Japanese Manga | accessdate = 2007-09-18 | publisher = dnp.co.jp}}</ref> In their modern form, manga date from shortly after [[World War II]]<ref name="Kinsella">{{citation | last = Kinsella | first = Sharon | authorlink = | title = Adult Manga: Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society | year = 2000 | publisher = University of Hawai'i Press | location = Honolulu | isbn = 978-0824823184 }}</ref> but have a long, complex history in earlier [[Japanese art]].<ref name="Kern">{{citation | last = Kern | first = Adam | title = Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyoshi of Edo Japan | year = 2006 | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0674022669 }}</ref><ref name="Ito">{{citation | last = Ito | first = Kinko | year = 2005 | title = A history of manga in the context of Japanese culture and society | journal = The Journal of Popular Culture | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 456-475 | url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpl/jpcu/2005/00000038/00000003/art00002 | accessdate = 2007-09-14 | quote = }}</ref><ref name="Schodt 1986">Schodt, Frederik L. (1986). "Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics." Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 978-0870117527.</ref>
+In [[Japan]], manga are widely read by people of all ages,<ref name = "Gravett"/> so that a broad range of subjects and topics occur in manga, including action-adventure, romance, sports and games, historical drama, comedy, science fiction and fantasy, mystery, horror, sexuality, and business and commerce, among others.<ref name="Gravett" /> Since the 1950s, manga have steadily become a major part of the Japanese publishing industry,<ref name="Kinsella" /><ref name="Schodt 1996">Schodt, Frederik L. (1996). "Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga." Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN  978-1880656235.</ref> representing a 481 billion [[Japanese yen|yen]] market in Japan in 2006<ref name="ComiPress">{{cite web | url = http://comipress.com/news/2007/03/10/1622 | title = 2006 Japanese Manga Market Drops Below 500 Billion Yen | accessdate = 2007-09-14 | date = 2007-03-10 | publisher = ComiPress}}</ref> (approximately [[Dollar sign|$]]4.4 billion dollars).<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.google.com/search?client=opera&rls=en&q=500+billion+yen+in+dollars&sourceid=opera&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8 | title = 500 billion yen in dollars | accessdate = 2007-09-14 | date = 2007-09-14 | publisher = Google}}</ref> Manga have also become increasingly popular worldwide.<ref name="Wong 2006">{{citation | last = Wong | first = Wendy Siuyi | year = 2006 | title = Globalizing manga: From Japan to Hong Kong and beyond | journal = Mechademia: An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts | volume = 1 | issue = | pages = 23-45 | url = http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/L/lunning_mechademia1.html | accessdate = 2007-09-14 | quote = }}</ref><ref name="Patten">Patten, Fred. 2004. ''Watching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews.'' Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1880656921.</ref> In 2006, the [[United States]] manga market was $175-200 million.<ref name="Cha">{{cite web | url = http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6430330.html?nid=2789 | title = Viz Media and Manga in the U.S | accessdate = 2007-09-14 | last = Cha | first = Kai-Ming | date = 2007-04-03 | publisher = Publishers Weekly}}</ref>
-'''''Manga''''' ({{lang|ja|漫画}} ou {{lang|ja|まんが}}) désigne en [[japonais]] les [[bandes dessinées]] en général.
+Manga are typically printed in [[black-and-white]],<ref>Katzenstein, Peter. J. & Takashi Shiraishi 1997. '' Network Power: Japan in Asia.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN  978-0801483738.  http://books.google.com/books?id=-Fc8J60XGZAC&pg=PA249&lpg=PA249&dq=manga+typically+black+white&source=web&ots=uMDXzjpj_b&sig=IDoYmSGrGHeleX-XRqsHQmKDUgU}}</ref> although some full-color manga exist (e.g. ''[[Colorful]]'').<ref>{{citation | last = Kishi | first = Torajiro | title = [[Colorful]] | year = 1998 | publisher = Shueisha Publishing Co., Ltd. | location = Tokyo | isbn = 4-08-782556-6 }}</ref> In Japan, manga are usually serialized in telephone book-size manga magazines, often containing many stories each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> If the series is successful, collected chapters may be republished in paperback books called ''[[tankōbon]]''.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> A manga artist (''[[mangaka]]'' in Japanese) typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company.<ref name="Kinsella" /> If a manga series is popular enough, it may be [[Anime|animated]] after or even during its run.<ref>{{citation | last = Kittelson | first = Mary Lynn | title = The Soul of Popular Culture: Looking at Contemporary Heroes, Myths, and Monsters | year = 1998 | publisher = Open Court | location = Chicago, Illinois | isbn = 978-0812693638 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=q-R_Zk5hFgkC&pg=PA70&dq=manga+anime+popular+animated&ei=gbfqRtHFKYXapAK1r42GAw&sig=q781dDb9wp_kF5kbopX8Wbiix5k}}</ref> Although sometimes manga are drawn centering on previously existing [[Live action|live-action]] or animated films.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://parobs.org/index.php?module=article&view=279&lay_quiet=1&8dced886a4bd24eb30fc46843fb4287a=23679635f7832235dae9949749a76f35 | title = Finding the International in Comic Con International | accessdate = 2007-09-15 | last = Johnston-O'Neill | first = Tom | date = 08/03/2007 | work = | publisher = The San Diego Participant Observer}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wizarduniverse.com/magazine/anime/005141377.cfm | title = Videogame Visions Udon's 'Street Fighter' titles join game-based manga scene | accessdate = 2007-09-15 | last = Brienza | first = Casey | date = July 13, 2007 | publisher = [[Wizard (magazine)|Wizard]]}}</ref> (e.g. ''[[Star Wars (manga)|Star Wars]]'').<ref>{{Cite comic | Cartoonist = Hisao Tamaki | Story = George Lucas | Title = Star Wars: A New Hope Manga | Volume = | Issue = 1 | date = July 15, 1998 | Publisher = Dark Horse Comics}}</ref>
-En [[français]], ce terme désigne les bandes dessinées japonaises, et par extension, les bandes dessinées non-japonaises respectant les codes des productions japonaises.
-Le mot ''manga'' est souvent utilisé, de façon impropre, pour nommer d'autres produits visuels rappelant ces bandes dessinées (dessins animés, style graphique...).
-==Introduction==
+Manga as a term outside of Japan refers specifically to comics originally published in Japan.<ref name="Merriam-Webster">{{cite web | url = http://m-w.com/dictionary/manga | title = Definition of manga | publisher = Merriam-Webster Online}}</ref> However, manga and manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in other parts of the world, particularly in Korea ("[[manhwa]]")<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id=67 | title = Manhwa: 만화 | accessdate = 2007-09-14 | publisher = [[Anime News Network]]}}</ref> and in the People's Republic of China, including Hong Kong ("[[manhua]]").<ref name="Wong 2002">{{citation | last = Wong | first = Wendy Siuyi | title = Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua | year = 2002 | publisher = Princeton Architectural Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-1568982694 }}</ref> In [[France]], "[[la nouvelle manga]]" is a form of ''bande dessinée'' drawn in styles influenced by Japanese manga.<ref>{{citation | last = Vollmar | first = Rob | year = 2007 | month = March | title = Frederic Boilet and the Nouvelle Manga revolution | journal = World Literature Today | url = http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-6318937/Frederic-Boilet-and-the-Nouvelle.html | accessdate = 2007-09-14 | quote = }}</ref> In the U.S., manga-like comics are called Amerimanga, world manga, or [[original English-language manga]] (OEL manga).<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id=99 | title = World Manga | accessdate = 2007-09-14 | publisher = [[Anime News Network]]}}</ref>
-===Origine===
-[[Image:Manga colored.svg|thumbnail|Exemple de dessin d'inspiration manga.]]
-''Manga'' souvent traduit littéralement par « image dérisoire », est composé de ''ga'' ({{lang|ja|画}}), « dessin », « gravure », et ''man'' ({{lang|ja|漫}}), « involontaire », « divertissant », « sans but » mais aussi « au fil de l'idée », ainsi on pourrait aussi bien le traduire par « esquisse libre », « esquisse rapide » ou « image malhabile ».
+The [[Kyoto International Manga Museum]] maintains a very large website listing manga published in Japanese.<ref name="KyMM">http://www.kyotomm.com/english/about_5.html</ref>
-Le terme devient courant à la fin du {{s-|XVIII|e}} avec la publication d'ouvrages tels que ''Mankaku zuihitsu'' (1771) de Kankei Suzuki ou ''Shiji no yukikai'' (1798) de Kyoden Santo et au début du {{s-|XIX|e}} avec ''Manga hyakujo'' en 1814 de Minwa Aikawa. Également en 1814 [[Katsushika Hokusai|Hokusai]], le peintre de la célèbre [[:Image:The Great Wave off Kanagawa.jpg|vague]], nomme les images de grimaces qu'il a commencé à dessiner ''hokusai manga'', c'est ce dernier ouvrage qui fit connaitre le mot en occident.
+== Etymology ==
+Manga, literally translated, means "whimsical pictures". The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century with the publication of such works as [[Santō Kyōden]]'s picturebook "Shiji no yukikai" (1798), and in the early 19th century with such works as [[Aikawa Minwa]]'s "Manga hyakujo" (1814) and the celebrated ''Hokusai manga'' containing assorted drawings from the sketchbook of the famous ''[[ukiyo-e]]'' artist [[Hokusai]]. The first user of the word "manga" as its modern usage is [[Rakuten Kitazawa]].<ref name="Manga no Jiten">Isao Shimizu, ''Nihon Manga no Jiten'' p53-54 p102-103, ISBN 4-385-15586-0</ref>
-===Quelques notions===
+== History and characteristics ==
-Le dessinateur de ''manga'' est appelé [[mangaka]]. Il est soumis à des rythmes de parution très rapides, et ne bénéficie pas toujours d'une totale liberté sur son œuvre, selon la réception auprès du public. Si le ''manga'' connaît un fort succès, l'auteur devra prolonger son histoire, même s'il voulait la terminer. À l'inverse, certaines œuvres peu connues ne verront pas leur suite et fin publiées.
+{{Main|History of manga}}
+=== Overview of ideas ===
+[[Image:京都国際マンガミュージアム.jpg|thumb|The Kyoto International Manga Museum has an extensive collection of historical and contemporary manga.]]
+Historians and writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in the relative importance they attribute to the role of cultural and historical events following [[World War II]] versus the role of pre-War, [[Meiji period|Meiji]], and [[Meiji Restoration|pre-Meiji]] Japanese culture and art.
-Les ''manga'' se lisent souvent dans le sens inverse des bandes dessinées occidentales : de droite à gauche ce qui correspond au sens de lecture japonais. Cela amène une certaine confusion puisque la lecture des mots se fait alors dans le sens inverse de celui des cases (ce qui n'est pas le cas au Japon). Si les jeunes s'y adaptent assez facilement, les lecteurs adultes éprouvent des difficultés. Introduits en France en 1978 avec la revue ''Le cri qui tue'', les ''manga'' ne sont publiés dans ce sens en Occident que depuis 1995 environ. Toutefois, les éditeurs français ne se plient pas systématiquement à cette spécificité. Certains éditeurs choisissent alors de simplement retourner les images, ce qui occasionne des incohérences douteuses (un droitier qui devient gaucher, un coup porté au cœur qui perd son sens avec une image inversée ou encore un salut nazi effectué du bras gauche dans ''[[L'Histoire des 3 Adolf]]''). D'autres adaptent entièrement les ouvrages en retournant seulement certaines images, changeant la mise en page et en redessinant certains éléments graphiques, ce qui a pour mérite de faire correspondre la forme des [[phylactère]]s avec l'horizontalité des systèmes d'écriture occidentaux ([[Casterman]] notamment, dans sa collection ''Écritures'')., mais génère toutefois un surcoût significatif.<br/>La plupart des éditeurs ont actuellement adopté le sens de lecture japonais, dans un but d'économie et de respect de l'œuvre, même si cela peut risquer de les couper d'un lectorat plus large que les habitués du genre.<br/>Ailleurs qu'en France, et notamment aux États-Unis, l'adaptation se plie généralement au sens de lecture européen.
+The first view emphasizes events occurring during and after the [[Occupied Japan|U.S. Occupation of Japan]] (1945-1952), and stresses that manga was strongly shaped by [[United States]] cultural influences, including U.S. [[comics]] brought to [[Japan]] by the GIs and by images and themes from U.S. television, film, and [[cartoon]]s (especially [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]).<ref name="Kinsella" /><ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Kinsella also sees a central role for how the booming [[Post-Occupation Japan|post-war]] Japanese publishing industry helped create a consumer-oriented society in which publishing giants like [[Kodansha]] could shape popular taste.<ref name="Kinsella" />
-=== Diffusion ===
+Japanese writers like [[Takashi Murakami]] have also stressed events after WWII, but Murakami sees Japan's staggering defeat and the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] as having created long-lasting scars on the Japanese artistic psyche, which, in this view, lost its previously virile confidence in itself and sought solace in harmless and cute ("[[kawaii]]") images.<ref name="Murakami">{{citation | last = Murakami | first = Takashi | authorlink = | title = Little Boy: the Arts of Japan's Exploding Subculture | year = 2005 | publisher = Japan Society | location = New York | isbn = 0-913304-57-3}}</ref> However, Takayumi Tatsumi sees a special role for a transpacific economic and cultural [[transnationalism]] that created a postmodern and shared international youth culture of cartooning, film, television, music, and related popular arts, which was, for Tatsumi the crucible in which modern manga have developed.<ref name="Tatsumi">{{citation | last = Tatsumi | first = Takayumi | authorlink = | title = Full Metal Apache: Transactions between Cyberpunk Japan and Avant-Pop America | year = 2006 | publisher = Duke University Press | location = Durham, NC | isbn = 0-8223-3774-6 }}</ref>
-À la différence de l'Europe et des États-Unis, le marché de la bande dessinée au Japon n'est pas un marché de niche mais bel est bien un phénomène de masse qui touche une part énorme de la population (on estime à 50&nbsp;% le nombre de japonais qui lisent au moins un ''manga'' par semaine) et génère une importante activité économique. Il convient de savoir que les ''manga'' japonais sont moins chers qu'en Europe, leur prix avoisinant les 400 yens (2,44&nbsp;€ fin 2007), alors qu'en France, le prix d'un manga se situe généralement entre 5,50 et 8 euros selon le format et les éditions.
-Le ''manga'', qui est publié dans les magazines de prépublication, est davantage considéré au Japon comme un objet de grande consommation que comme un objet de valeur. Cependant, des éditions reliées et brochées à l'image de celles paraissant en Occident, sont destinées à être collectionnées et conservées.
+For Murakami and Tatsumi, transnationalism (or globalization) refers specifically to the flow of cultural and subcultural material from one nation to another.<ref name="Murakami" /><ref name="Tatsumi" /> In their usage, the term does not refer to international corporate expansion, nor to international tourism, nor to cross-border international personal friendships, but to ways in which artistic, aesthetic, and intellectual traditions influence each other across national boundaries.<ref name="Murakami" /><ref name="Tatsumi" /> An example of cultural transnationalism is the creation of ''[[Star Wars]]'' films in the United States, their transformation into manga by Japanese artists, and the marketing of ''Star Wars'' manga to the United States.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.starwars.com/eu/lit/comics/news20000105.html | title = Phantom Goes Manga | accessdate = 2007-09-18 | date = January 05, 2000 | publisher = StarWars.com}}</ref> Another example is the transfer of hip-hop culture from the United States to Japan.<ref name="Condry">{{citation | last = Condry | first = Ian | authorlink = | title = Hip-Hop Japan: Rap and the Path of Cultural Globalization | year = 2006 | publisher = Duke University Press | location = Durham, NC | isbn = 0-8223-3892-0 }}</ref> Wong also sees a major role for transnationalism in the recent history of manga.<ref name="Wong 2006" />
-L'énorme popularité des ''manga'' rivalise avec les grosses pointures de la bande dessinée européenne&nbsp;; ainsi, les 42 tomes de [[Dragon Ball]] se sont vendus à plus de 250 millions d'exemplaires dans le monde, un chiffre qui surpasse celui enregistré par [[Les Aventures de Tintin et Milou|les aventures de Tintin]] avec 24 albums édités à plus de 200 millions d'exemplaires.
+However, other writers stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions as central to the history of manga. They include [[Frederik L. Schodt]],<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Schodt 1996" /> Kinko Ito,<ref name="Ito 2000">{{citation | last = Ito | first = Kinko | year = 2004 | title = "Growing up Japanese reading manga" | journal = International Journal of Comic Art | volume = 6 | pages = 392-401}}</ref> and Adam L. Kern.<ref name ="Kern 2006">Kern, Adam (2006). Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyoshi of Edo Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN-10: 0674022661.</ref><ref name="Kern 2007">{{citation | last = Kern | first = Adam L. | year = 2007 | title = "Symposium: Kibyoshi: The World's First Comicbook?" | journal = International Journal of Comic Art | volume = 9 | pages = 1-486}}</ref>
-A noter la présence des ''[[manhwa]]'' : bandes dessinées coréennes, très semblables aux ''manga'', dont la parution et la diffusion se font également de plus en plus dynamiques.
+Schodt points to the existence in the 1200s of illustrated picture scrolls like the Tobae scrolls that told stories in sequential images with humor and wit.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Schodt also stresses continuities of aesthetic style and vision between [[ukiyo-e]] and [[shunga]] woodblock prints and modern manga (all three fulfill [[Will Eisner|Eisner's]] criteria<ref name="Eisner">{{citation | last = Eisner | first = Will | authorlink = | title = Comics & Sequential Art | year = 1985 | publisher = Poorhouse Press | location = Tamarac, FL | isbn = 0-9614728-0-2}}</ref> for sequential art). Schodt also sees a particularly significant role for [[kamishibai]], a form of street theater where itinerant artists displayed pictures in a light box while narrating the story to audiences in the street.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Torrance has pointed to similarities between modern manga and the Osaka popular novel between the 1890s and 1940, and argues that the development of widespread literacy in Meiji and post-Meiji Japan helped create audiences for stories told in words and pictures.<ref name="Torrance">{{citation | last = Torrance | first = Richard | year = 2005 | month = Winter | title = Richard 2005 Literacy and literature in Osaka, 1890-1940 | journal = Journal of Japanese Studies | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 27-60 | url = http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v031/31.1torrance.html | accessdate = 2007-09-16 | quote = }}</ref>
-== Histoire des mangas ==
+Kinko Ito also roots manga historically in aesthetic continuity with pre-Meiji art, but she sees its post-World War II history as driven in part by consumer enthusiasm for the rich imagery and narrative of the newly developing manga tradition. Ito describes how this tradition has steadily produced new genres and markets, e.g., for girls' (''[[shōjo]]'') manga in the late 1960s and for Ladies Comics (''[[Josei|redisu]]'') in the 1980s.<ref name="Ito 2000" />
-=== Mouvements culturels initiateurs ===
-[[Image:The Great Wave off Kanagawa.jpg|thumb|right|Hokusai, Tsunami.]]
+Kern has suggested that ''kibyoshi'', illustrated picture books from the late 1700s, may have been the world's first [[comic book]]s.<ref name ="Kern 2006" /> These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.<ref name ="Kern 2006" /> Although Kern does not believe that ''kibyoshi'' were a direct forerunner of manga, nonetheless, for Kern the existence of ''kibyoshi'' points to a Japanese willingness to mix words and pictures in a popular story-telling medium.<ref name="Kern 2007" /> The first recorded use of the term "manga" to mean "whimsical or impromptu pictures" comes from this tradition in 1798, which, Kern points out, predates [[Hokusai|Katsushika Hokusai's]] better known later usage by several decades (Kern, 2006, pp. 139-144; Figure 3.3).<ref name ="Kern 2006" />
-Le ''manga'', bien que très ancré dans la [[culture japonaise]] moderne, trouve ses origines dans la [[époque de Nara|période Nara]], avec l'apparition des premiers rouleaux peints japonais : les ''[[emaki]]mono''. Ceux-là associaient en effet des peintures à des textes calligraphiés qui assuraient, ensemble, le récit d'une histoire que l'on découvrait au fur et à mesure que se déroulait le rouleau. Le premier des ''emakimono'', le ''[[inga kyō]]'', était la copie d'une œuvre chinoise et marquait une nette séparation entre le texte et la peinture. Pourtant, dès le milieu du {{XIIe siècle}}, apparaissent les premiers ''emakimono'' de style japonais, dont le ''[[Le Dit du Genji|Genji monogatari]] [[emaki]]'' est le plus ancien représentant conservé. Ces derniers faisaient souvent intervenir de courts textes explicatifs après de longues scènes peintes. Cette priorité accordée à l'image – qui peut assurer seule la narration – est aujourd'hui une des caractéristiques les plus importantes du ''manga''. De même, lors de la [[époque d'Edo|période Edo]], les [[estampe]]s étaient d'abord destinées à l'illustration de livres, mais, très vite, le rapport de force s'inversa et l'on vit l'apparition de «&nbsp;livres à regarder&nbsp;» en opposition avec les «&nbsp;livres à lire&nbsp;», avant la disparition totale d'écrits complémentaires et la naissance de l'estampe «&nbsp;indépendante&nbsp;» en une seule illustration : l’''[[ukiyo-e]]''. C'est d'ailleurs [[Katsushika Hokusai]] ([[1760]]-[[1849]]), le fondateur de l'[[estampe]] de paysage, qui donna son nom au ''manga'' (littéralement «&nbsp;dessins grotesques&nbsp;»), nommant ainsi ses célèbres caricatures qu'il publia de [[1814]] à [[1834]] à [[Nagoya]].
-Enfin, et notamment dans le ''manga'' de type ''[[shōjo]]'', l'[[Art nouveau|Art Nouveau]] occupe une place prépondérante parmi les influences des [[mangaka]]s, tout en sachant que ce mouvement a été provoqué en partie par le [[japonisme]] en Europe, suite à la découverte des estampes par les occidentaux. <ref>[http://www.artscape.fr/2006/10/29/linfluence-japanisante-dans-lart-nouveau L’influence japanisante dans l’Art Nouveau]</ref>
-=== La bande dessinée ===
+Similarly, Inoue sees manga as being a mixture of image- and word-centered elements, each pre-dating the U.S.A. occupation of Japan. In his view, Japanese image-centered or "pictocentric" art ultimately derives from Japan's long history of engagement with Chinese graphic art, whereas word-centered or "logocentric" art, like the novel, was stimulated by social and economic needs of Meiji and pre-War Japanese nationalism for a populace unified by a common written language. Both fuse in what Inoue sees as a symbiosis in manga.<ref name="Inoue">{{citation | last = Inoue | first = Charles Shirō | title = Pictocentrism -- China as a source of Japanese modernity. In: Imaging/Reading Eros, Sumie Jones, editor | year = 1996 | publisher = East Asian Studies Center, Indiana University | location = Bloomington, IN | isbn = | pages = 148-152 }}</ref>
-Le ''manga'' ne connut pourtant sa forme actuelle – celle de [[bande dessinée]] – qu'au début du {{XXe siècle}}, sous l'influence des revues commerciales [[États-Unis|étasuniennes]]. Diverses séries, comparables à celles d'outre-atlantique, virent donc le jour dans les journaux japonais. Le très [[antimilitarisme|antimilitariste]] ''Norakuro'' (Le chien noir) de [[Tagawa Suiho]], et ''Bōken Dankichi'' (Les aventures de Dankichi) de [[Shimada Keizo]], seront les séries les plus populaires au Japon jusqu'au milieu des années quarante pendant lesquelles toute la presse ainsi que toutes les activités culturelles et artistiques subissent la censure du gouvernement militaire, ce dernier n'hésitant pas à mobiliser ces milieux à des fins de [[propagande]].
-=== L'après-guerre ===
+Thus, these scholars see the history of manga as involving historical continuities and discontinuities between the aesthetic and cultural past as it interacts with post-World War II innovation and transnationalism.
-Sous l'occupation américaine, les ''[[mangaka]]'' d'après-guerre subissent l'énorme influence des ''[[comic]]-strips'' qui sont alors traduits et diffusés en grand nombre dans la presse quotidienne japonaise. L'un d'entre eux, influencé par [[Walt Disney]], révolutionnera le genre et donnera naissance au ''manga'' moderne : il s'agit du célèbre [[Osamu Tezuka|Tezuka Osamu]]. C'est en effet Tezuka qui introduira le mouvement dans la bande dessinée japonaise par des effets graphiques comme des traits ou des [[onomatopée]]s soulignant toutes les actions comportant un déplacement, mais aussi et surtout par l'alternance des plans et des cadrages comme il est en usage au [[cinéma]], rompant ainsi avec une tradition [[théâtre|théâtrale]], les personnages étant jusque-là toujours représentés en pied, à égale distance et au centre de l'image. L'animation étant le véritable objectif de Tezuka, il réalisa la première série d'animation japonaise pour la télévision en janvier [[1963]], d'après l'une de ses œuvres : ''Tetsuwan Atom'', plus connue en France sous le nom d’''[[Astro, le petit robot]]''. Finalement, le passage du papier au petit écran devint courant et l'aspect commercial du ''manga'' prit de l'ampleur, puisqu'il va maintenant jusqu'à s'associer avec les jouets et jeux vidéo, ces derniers pouvant même être à l'origine d'un ''manga''. Mais revenons au ''manga'' sur papier dans lequel Tezuka ne se contenta pas de bouleverser le mode d'expression puisque sa curiosité et son imagination fertile le poussèrent à en explorer les différents genres – alors principalement infantiles –, ainsi qu'à en inventer de nouveaux, participant de cette façon à l'émergence de ''manga'' pour adultes dans les années soixante avec lesquels il put aborder des sujets plus « sérieux » et des scénarios plus complexes, sans toutefois perdre de son humour ni trahir son profond humanisme, son antimilitarisme et sa crainte vis-à-vis de la domination de la société par la science.
-Ainsi, les ''manga'' «&nbsp;grandissant&nbsp;» en même temps que ses lecteurs et se diversifiant selon les goûts d'un public de plus en plus important, l'édition du ''manga'' représente aujourd'hui plus d'un tiers par ses tirages et plus d'un quart par ses revenus de l'ensemble de l'édition japonaise. C'est pourquoi le ''manga'' est devenu un véritable phénomène de société puisqu'il touche toutes les classes sociales ainsi que toutes les générations grâce à son prix bon marché et à la diversification de ses sujets. En effet, le ''manga'', en tant que miroir mais aussi modèle social, traite de tous les thèmes imaginables : la vie à l'école ou au lycée, celle du salarié, le sport, l'amour, la guerre, l'épouvante, jusqu'à des séries plus didactiques comme la littérature classique japonaise ou chinoise, l'économie et la finance, l'histoire du Japon, la cuisine et même le code de la route, dévoilant ainsi ses vertus pédagogiques.
+=== After World War II ===
+Modern manga originates in the Occupation (1945-1952) and post-Occupation years (1952-early 1960s), when a previously militaristic and ultranationalist [[Japan]] was rebuilding its political and economic infrastructure.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref>This section draws primarily on the work of Frederik Schodt (1986, 1996, 2007) and of Paul Gravett (2004). Time-lines for manga history are available in Mechademia, Gravett, and in articles by Go Tchiei 1998a.</ref> Although U.S. Occupation censorship policies specifically targeted art and writing that glorified war and Japanese militarism,<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> those policies did not prevent the publication of other kinds of material, including manga. Furthermore, the 1947 [[Constitution of Japan|Japanese Constitution]] (Article 21) prohibited all forms of censorship.<ref name="Kodansha">{{citation | last = Staff Kodansha America | first = | authorlink = | title = Japan: Profile of a Nation, Revised Edition | year = | publisher = Kodansha International (JPN) | location = Tokyo | isbn = 978-4770023841 }}</ref> One result was an explosion of artistic creativity in this period.<ref name="Schodt 1986" />
+[[Image:Tezuka cinematographic.jpg|thumb|Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique as seen in ''[[Shin Takarajima]]'' (''New Treasure Island'').]]
+In the forefront of this period are two manga series and characters that influenced much of the future history of manga. These are [[Osamu Tezuka]]'s ''Mighty Atom'' (''[[Astro Boy]]'' in the [[United States]]; begun in 1951) and Machiko Hasegawa's ''[[Sazae-san]]'' (begun in 1946).
-En [[1985]], Tezuka Osamu reçoit le prix culturel de [[Tōkyō]], et en [[1990]], l'année qui a suivi sa mort, le [[Musée d'art moderne de Tōkyō]] lui consacre une exposition. Cet événement marque l'introduction du ''manga'' dans l'histoire culturelle japonaise.
+[[Astro Boy (character)|Astro Boy]] was both a superpowered robot and a naive little boy.<ref name="Schodt 2007">{{citation | last = Schodt | first = Frederik L. | authorlink = Frederik L. Schodt | title = The Astro Boy Essays: Osamu Tezuka, Mighty Atom, and the Manga/Anime Revolution | year = 2007 | publisher = Stone Bridge Press | location = Berkeley, CA | isbn = 978-1933330549 }}</ref> Tezuka never explained why Astro Boy had such a highly developed social conscience nor what kind of robot programming could make him so deeply affiliative.<ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Both seem innate to Astro Boy, and represent a Japanese sociality and community-oriented masculinity differing very much from the Emperor-worship and militaristic obedience enforced during the previous period of Japanese imperialism.<ref name="Schodt 2007" /> ''Astro Boy'' quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere as an icon and hero of a new world of peace and the renunciation of war, as also seen in Article 9 of the Japanese constitution.<ref name="Kodansha" /><ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Similar themes occur in Tezuka's ''New World'' and ''Metropolis''.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Schodt 2007" />
-=== En France ===
+By contrast, ''Sazae-san'' (meaning "Ms. Sazae") was drawn starting in 1946 by Machiko Hasegawa, a young woman artist who made her heroine a stand-in for millions of Japanese men and especially women rendered homeless by the war.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> Sazae-san does not face an easy or simple life, but, like Astro Boy, she too is highly affiliative and is deeply involved with her immediate and extended family. She is also a very strong character, in striking contrast to the officially sanctioned Neo-Confucianist principles of feminine meekness and obedience to the "good wife, wise mother" (''ryōsai kenbo'', りょうさいけんぼ; 良妻賢母) ideal taught by the previous military regime.<ref name="Uno">Uno, Kathleen S. 1993. "The death of 'Good Wife, Wise Mother'." In: Andrew Gordon (editor) ''Postwar Japan as History''. Berkeley, CA: University of California. pp. 293-322. ISBN 0520074750. </ref><ref name="Ohinata">Ohinata, Masami 1995 "The mystique of motherhood: A key to understanding social change and family problems in Japan." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) ''Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future''. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 199-211. ISBN 978-1558610941.</ref><ref name="Yoshizumi">Yoshizumi, Kyoko 1995 "Marriage and family: Past and present." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) ''Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future''. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 183-197. ISBN 978-1558610941.</ref> Sazae-san faces the world with cheerful resilience,<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Lee 2000">Lee, William (2000). "From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0765605610.</ref> what Hayao Kawai calls a "woman of endurance."<ref name="Kawai">Kawai, Hayao. 1996. The Japanese Psyche: Major Motifs in the Fairy Tales of Japan. Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications. Chapter 7, pp. 125-142.</ref> ''Sazae-san'' sold more than 62 million copies over the next half century.<ref name="Schodt 1997">{{citation | last = Hasegawa | first = Machiko | authorlink = | last2 = Schodt | first2 = Frederik L. | title = The Wonderful World of Sazae-San | chapter = Forward | year = 1997 | publisher = Kodansha International (JPN) | location = Tokyo | isbn = 978-4770020758 }}</ref>
-====Avant ''Akira'' : l'impossible installation de la bande dessinée japonaise====
+[[Image:Sazae-san kamishibai.jpg|thumb|A ''kami-shibai'' story teller from ''Sazae-san'' by Machiko Hasegawa. Sazae is the woman with her hair in a bun.]]
-Hormis quelques planches de ''Bushidou Muzanden'' d'[[Hirata Hiroshi]] dans ''Budo Magazine Europe''<ref>Selon ce [http://www.gamekult.com/blog/exelen/68409/Petit+Historique+de+l+Anime+et+du+Manga+en+France+de+1978+a+2003.html Petit historique de l'anime et du manga en France] d'Exelen.</ref>, publication consacrée au [[judo]], à la toute fin des années 1960 et 'un article de [[Claude Moliterni]] et [[Kosei Ono]] qui lui est consacré en 1971 dans ''[[Phénix (bande dessinée)|Phénix]]'', la bande dessinée japonaise est inexistante dans le monde francophone avant 1979<ref>Pour cette phrase et, sauf indication contraire, toute la suite du paragraphe jusqu'en 1991 : Flash (1991)</ref>. À cette date, [[Atoss Takemoto]] publie le premier numéro du ''[[Le Cri qui tue|Cri qui tue]]'', fanzine d'assez mauvaise qualité (impression, choix des bandes). On y retrouve dans les six numéros qui paraissent jusqu'en 1981 ''[[Golgo 13]]'' de [[Saito Takao]], ''Le Système des Super Oiseaux'' d'[[Osamu Tezuka]], ''Good Bye'' de [[Yoshihiro Tatsumi]], et des histoires de [[Shōtarō Ishinomori]], Fujio-Fujiko, [[Masashi Ueda]]. Toutes les planches sont adaptées au sens de lecture européen.
+Tezuka and Hasegawa were also both stylistic innovators. In Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later [[Mangaka|manga artists]].<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Hasegawa's focus on daily life and on women's experience also came to characterize later [[shojo]] manga.<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Lee 2000" /><ref name="Sanchez"> Sanchez, Frank (1997-2003). "Hist 102: History of Manga." http://www.animeinfo.org/animeu/hist102.html. AnimeInfo. Retrieved on 2007-09-11.</ref>
-En 1979 également, [[Kesselring]], associé à Takemoto, publie le premier album : ''[[Le vent du nord est comme le hennissement d'un cheval noir]]'' de Shōtarō Ishinomori. Le format choisi, supérieure à la norme européenne, met peu en valeur les particularités du format japonais, le lettrage est bâclé : comme le premier périodique, le premier album est un échec. En 1982, les éditions Télé-Guide, désireuse de profiter du succès de la série animée ''[[Candy (anime)|Candy]]'', publient avec succès la bande dessinée originelle de [[Yumiko Igarashi]] et [[Kyoko Mizuki]] dans les douze numéros de ''Candy Poche''. C'est pourtant dans les années 1980 le seul manga adapté en dessin animé à faire l'objet d'une traduction, les autres adaptations étant le fait de studios français, afin d'éviter de payer des droits d'auteurs.
+Between 1950 and 1969, increasingly large audiences for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres, ''[[shōnen]]'' manga aimed at boys and ''shōjo'' manga aimed at girls.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Toku 2005">{{citation | last = Toku | first = Masami | year = 2005 | month = | title = Shojo Manga: Girl Power! | journal = Chico Statements | issue = Spring 2006 | url = http://www.csuchico.edu/pub/cs/spring_06/feature_03.html | accessdate = 2007-09-22 | quote = }}</ref> Up to 1969, ''shōjo'' manga was drawn primarily by adult men for young female readers.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Thorn 2001">{{citation | last = Thorn | first = Matt | authorlink = Matt Thorn | year = 2001 | month = July-September | title = Shôjo Manga—Something for the Girls | journal = The Japan Quarterly | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | url = http://matt-thorn.com/shoujo_manga/japan_quarterly/index.html | accessdate = 2007-09-22 }}</ref>
-En 1983, le premier volume de ''[[Gen d'Hiroshima]]'' de [[Keiji Nakazawa]] est publié par [[Les Humanoïdes associés]] dans la collection « Autodafé », dans une édition correcte, mais qui ne rencontre aucun succès. De même, l’''Hiroshima'' de Yoshihiro Tatsumi édité par Artefact ne trouve pas son public. Les éditeurs sont alors refroidis par l'expérience et, dans un contexte de récession, plus aucune bande dessinée japonaise n'est éditée en album jusqu'à ''Akira'', hormis en 1989 chez [[Éditions Albin Michel|Albin Michel]] le premiers tome des ''Secrets de l'économie japonaise en bandes dessinées'' d'Ishinomori. Du côté des périodiques, le succès n'est pas plus au rendez-vous. Les premiers mangas [[bande dessinée pornographique|pornographiques]] sont traduits, avec la publication chez [[Idéogram]] dans les onze numéros de la revue ''Mutant'', de janvier 1985 à janvier 1986, d'''[[Oscar (manga)|Androïde]]'', de [[Sesaku Kanô]] et [[Kazuo Koike]] et celle dans ''Rebels'' n°3 (juin 85) à 9 (janvier 86) de ''Scorpia'' de M. Yuu et K. Kazuya.
+Two very popular and influential male-authored manga for girls from this period were Tezuka's 1953-1956 ''Ribon no Kishi'' (''[[Princess Knight]]'' or ''Knight in Ribbons'') and Matsuteru Yokoyama's 1966 ''Mahōtsukai Sarii'' (''[[Sally, the Witch|Little Witch Sally]]'').<ref name="Schodt 1986" />
-L'absence de traduction de ce que les spécialistes savent être le premier marché de la bande dessinée suscite cependant les interrogations de [[Thierry Groensteen]] en 1985<ref>Dans son ouvrage ''La Bande dessinée en France depuis 1975''.</ref> et la publication de divers articles dans ''[[Les Cahiers de la bande dessinée]]''. Au milieu des années 1980 naît ''Mangazone'', premier fanzine d'information sur la bande dessinée japonaise.
+''Ribon no Kishi'' dealt with the adventures of Princess Sapphire of a fantasy kingdom who had been born with male and female souls, and whose sword-swinging battles and romances blurred the boundaries of otherwise rigid gender roles.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Sarii, the pre-teen princess heroine of ''Mahōtsukai Sarii,''<ref>''Sarii'' is the Japanese spelling and pronunciation of the English-language name "Sally." The word ''mahōtsukai'' literally means "magic operator," someone who can use and control magic. It does ''not'' mean "witch" or "magical girl" (which is ''mahō shōjo'' in Japanese), because ''tsukai'' is not a gendered word in Japanese. This use of an English-language name with a Japanese descriptive word is an example of transnationalism in Tatsumi's sense.</ref> came from her home in the magical lands to live on Earth, go to school, and perform a variety of magical good deeds for her friends and schoolmates.<ref name="Yoshida">{{cite paper | last = Yoshida | first = Kaori | title = Evolution of Female Heroes: Carnival Mode of Gender Representation in Anime | publisher = Western Washington University | date = 2002 | url = http://journals2.iranscience.net:800/mcel.pacificu.edu/mcel.pacificu.edu/aspac/home/papers/scholars/yoshida/yoshida.php3 | accessdate = 2007-09-22 }}</ref> Yokoyama's ''Mahōtsukai Sarii'' was influenced by the U.S. TV sitcom ''[[Bewitched]]'',<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fpsmagazine.com/feature/060627magicalgirls.php | title = Bewitched by Magical Girls | accessdate = 2007-09-22 | last = Johnson | first = Melissa | date = June 27, 2006 | publisher = FPS Magazine}}</ref> but unlike Samantha, the main character of ''Bewitched'', a married woman with her own daughter, Sarii is a pre-teenager who faces the problems of growing up and mastering the responsibilities of forthcoming adulthood. ''Mahōtsukai Sarii'' helped create the now very popular ''mahō shōjo'' or "[[magical girl]]" subgenre of later manga.<ref name="Yoshida" /> Both series were and still are very popular.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Yoshida" />
-====1990 : ''Akira'', Glénat, et la naissance du manga en France====
+==== ''Shōjo'' manga ====
-Suite au succès du film, [[Glénat]] décide de publier ''[[Akira]]'', de [[Katsuhiro Otomo]], en fascicules, à partir de mars 1990. Bien que la série n'ait pas de dessin animé pour la porter, le renouvellement massif des codes de la bande dessinée qu'introduit cette œuvre permet au succès d'être cette fois au rendez-vous, et l'édition cartonnée en couleur voit le jour dès la fin de l'année. ''Mangazone'' en profite pour devenir un prozine, tiré à 700 exemplaires<ref>Cette seconde formule, remarquée à l'époque, connaît huit numéros avant sa disparition en 1994, ses éditeurs préférant se consacrer à leur autre production ''[[Scarce]]''.</ref>. La qualité de la revue fait des émules : en 1990 naissent les fanzines ''Yamato'' et ''Protoculture addict''. En décembre 1990, le premier volume de ''Gen d'Hiroshima'' fait l'objet d'une nouvelle édition chez Albin Michel, sous le titre erroné de ''Mourir pour le Japon''. En 1991, alors que la suite d'''Akira'' est publiée, ''[[Rêves d'enfants]]'', autre série d'Otomo, est éditée en 1991 par Les Humanoïdes associés. À la fin de l'année, un premier tome de ''[[City Hunter]]'' est publié. Cependant, seul ''Akira'' trouve alors son public. En mai naît ''[[Animeland]]'', fanzine luxueux qui remplace progressivement ''Mangazone'' comme référence francophone.
+In 1969, a group of women mangaka later called the ''[[Year 24 Group]]'' (also known as ''Magnificent 24s'') made their ''[[shōjo]]'' manga debut (year 24 comes from the Japanese name for 1949, when many of these artists were born).<ref>Gravett, 2004, ''op. cit.'', pp.78-80.</ref><ref>Lent, 2001, ''op. cit.'', pp. 9-10.</ref> The group included [[Hagio Moto]], [[Riyoko Ikeda]], [[Yumiko Oshima]], [[Keiko Takemiya]], and [[Riyoko Yamagishi]]<ref name="Gravett" /> and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> Thereafter, ''shōjo'' manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Thorn 2001" />
-Alors que de plus en plus de voix s'élèvent pour protester contre les dessins animés japonais, toujours plus présents dans les programmes jeunesse, Glénat, une fois ''Akira'' achevé, décide de tenter de nouvelles traductions, en publiant les bandes dessinées d'origine de dessins animés à succès : ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' d'[[Akira Toriyama]] à partir de février 1993, ''[[Ranma ½]]'' de [[Rumiko Takahashi]] en février 1994. La réussite de l'entreprise permet à Glénat de traduir d'autres bandes dessinées, parfois liées à un dessin animé, parfois non : ''[[Appleseed]]'' de [[Masamune Shirow]] à partir juin 1994, puis ''[[Orion (manga)|Orion]]'' du même auteur en septembre, ''[[Crying Freeman]]'' de [[Ryōichi Ikegami]] en janvier 1995, ''[[Docteur Slump]]'' de Toriyama en février, ''[[Gunnm]]'' de [[Yukito Kishiro]] à partir de mars, ''[[Sailor Moon]]'' de [[Naoko Takeuchi]] en novembre.
+In 1971, Ikeda began her immensely popular ''shōjo'' manga ''Berusaiyu no Bara'' (''[[The Rose of Versailles]]''), a story of Oscar François de Jarjayes, a cross-dressing woman who was a Captain in [[Marie Antoinette]]'s Palace Guards in pre-Revolutionary France.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Tchiei">{{cite web | url = http://www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga6-1.html | title = Shojo Manga: A Unique Genre | accessdate = 2007-09-22 | last = Tchiei | first = Go | date = 1998 }}</ref> In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille. Likewise, Hagio Moto's work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women's roles and activities <ref name="Uno" /><ref name="Ohinata" /><ref name="Yoshizumi" /> as in her 1975 ''[[They Were Eleven]]'', a ''shōjo'' [[science fiction]] story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.<ref>Hagio Moto 1975/1996 "They Were Eleven." In: Matt Thorn (editor) ''Four Shojo Stories''. San Francisco: [[Viz Media]]. ISBN 1569310556. Original story published 1975; U.S. edition 1996.</ref>
-D'autres éditeurs traditionnels commencent à s'intéresser au manga. [[Casterman]] publie d'abord dans sa collection « Manga », créée en janvier 1995 deux bandes dessinées créées aux Japon par des auteurs français (''Kiro'' d'[[Alex Varenne]] puis en septembre ''Au Nom de la famille'' de [[Jérôme Charyn]] et [[Joe Staton]]) avant de traduire coup sur coup en septembre ''[[Gon (manga)|Gon]]'' de [[Masashi Tanaka]], ''[[L'Habitant de l'infini]]'' d'[[Hiroaki Samura]] , et ''[[L'Homme qui marche]]'' de [[Jiro Taniguchi]], premier manga d'auteur publié en France. « Casterman manga » accueille de nouveaux titres de qualité jusqu'en 1999, avant d'être remplacée par des collections plus spécialisées par la suite. [[Dark Horse]] France publie ''[[Outlanders]]'' de [[Johji Manabe]] de janvier 1995 à janvier 1996. [[Dargaud]] se lance également en créant la collection [[Kana]] avec ''[[Angel Dick]]'' puis ''[[Armagedon]]'' de la [[corée]]nne [[Hyun Se Lee]]<ref>À l'époque, on ne distingait pas manga et [[manwha]].</ref>.
+These women artists also created considerable stylistic innovations. In its focus on the heroine's inner experiences and feelings, ''shōjo'' manga are "picture poems"<ref>Schodt, 1986, ''op. cit.'', p 88.</ref> with delicate and complex designs that often eliminate panel borders completely to create prolonged, non-narrative extensions of time.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Thorn 2001" /><ref name="McCloud">McCloud, Scott. 1993. ''Understanding Comics''. New York: Paradox Press. pp. 77-82.</ref> All of these innovations – strong and independent female characters, intense emotionality, and complex design – remain characteristic of ''shōjo'' manga up to the present day.<ref name="Sanchez" /><ref name="Tchiei" />
-Des éditeurs spécialisés naissent également : Samouraï Editions, qui publie des bandes dessinées érotiques à partir de 1994 (''Ogenki Clinic'' d'[[Inui Haruka]]) puis des mangas plus traditionnels l'année suivante (''[[Vampire princess Miyu|Vampire Miyu]]'' de [[Kakino Uchimaruri]] et [[Hirano Toshihiro]]), l'éphémère Star Comics en janvier 1995 avec ''[[Takeru]]'' de [[Buichi Terasawa]], [[Kraken (éditeur)|Kraken]] en avril (avant de disparaître l'année suivante) avec l'ambitieux ''Shang Hai Kaijinzoku'' de [[Takuhito Kusanagi]] puis ''Les Élémentalistes'' de [[Tasheshi Okazaki]] ou encore ''Vaelber Saga'' de [[Nobuteru Yūki]]. [[Tonkam]], qui se lance en juin 1995 avec ''[[RG veda]]'' de [[CLAMP]] devient le premier grand éditeur français spécialisé dans le manga. C'est également le premier à les publier dans le sens de lecture japonais, à la fois pour des raisons de coût et d'intégrité de l'œuvre, disposition qui devient rapidement la norme, sauf dans quelques cas particuliers (comme la collection « Écritures » de Casterman).
+==== ''Shōjo'' manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to today ====
+In the following decades (1975-present), ''[[shōjo]]'' manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres.<ref name="Ogi">Ōgi, Fusami 2004. "Female subjectivity and ''shōjo'' (girls) manga (Japanese comics): ''shōjo'' in Ladies' Comics and Young Ladies' Comics." ''Journal of Popular Culture'', 36(4):780-803.</ref> Major subgenres have included romance, superheroines, and ''redisu'' / ''josei'' 女性 じょせい, whose boundaries are sometimes indistinguishable from each other and from ''[[shōnen]]'' manga.<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Schodt 1996" />
-====1996-2001 : la traduction des grandes œuvres populaires japonaises et l'essor du marché====
+In modern ''shōjo'' manga romance, love is a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self-realization.<ref name="Drazen">Drazen, Patrick 2003. ''Anime Explosion!: the What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation''. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge.</ref> Japanese manga/[[anime]] critic Eri Izawa defines romance as symbolizing "the emotional, the grand, the epic; the taste of heroism, fantastic adventure, and the melancholy; passionate love, personal struggle, and eternal longing" set into imaginative, individualistic, and passionate narrative frameworks.<ref name="Izawa">Izawa, Eri 2000 ."[http://www.mit.edu/afs/athena.mit.edu/user/r/e/rei/WWW/manga-romanticism.html The romantic, passionate Japanese in anime: A look at the hidden Japanese soul]." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) ''Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture''. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 138-153. ISBN 978-0765605610. Accessed September 23, 2007.</ref>
-La vogue est lancée : ''Animeland'' devient en 1996 avec son vingt-deuxième numéro le premier magazine consacré à l'animation et à la bande dessinée japonaises diffusé en kiosque, de plus en plus d'éditeurs se joignent aux précurseurs, tandis que d'autres séries à grand succès sont traduites : de 2 en 1994, ce sont plus d'une quarantaine de séries différentes qui sont publiées ou lancées en 1996 (pour 105 albums, par Tonkam, Glénat et [[J'ai lu]] principalement), parmi lesquelles ''City Hunter'', cette fois porté par ''[[Nicky Larson]]'', ''[[Fly]]'' de [[Koji Inada]], [[Riku Sanjo]] et [[Yuji Horii]], ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' de Shirow, ''[[Amer Béton]]'' de [[Taiyo Matsumoto]], ''[[Bastard !!]]'' de [[Kazushi Hagiwara]], ''[[Le Roi Léo]]'', ''[[Astroboy]]'' et ''[[Blackjack (manga)|Blackjack]]'' d'[[Osamu Tezuka]]. En 1997 apparaissent ''[[Detective Conan]]'' de [[Gosho Aoyama]], ''[[3×3 Eyes]]'' de [[Yūzō Takada]], ''[[Sanctuary (manga)|Sanctuary]]'' de [[Ryōichi Ikegami]] et [[Sho Fumimura]], ''[[Ah! My Goddess]]'' de [[Kōsuke Fujishima]], en 1998 ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]'' de [[Yoshiyuki Sadamoto]], ''[[Cat's Eye]]'' de [[Tsukasa Hojo]], ''[[Kenshin le vagabond]]''de [[Nobuhiro Watsuki]], ''[[Yu-Gi-Oh!]]'' de [[Kazuki Takahashi]] ainsi que les premières réalisations de [[Naoki Urasawa]], en 1999 ''[[Ken le survivant]] de [[Tetsuo Hara]] et [[Buronson]], ''[[Captain Tsubasa]]'' de [[Yôichi Takahashi]], ''[[Cardcaptor Sakura]]'' de CLAMP, ''[[Slam Dunk (manga)|Slam Dunk]]'' de [[Takehiko Inoue]].
-Le marché continue à croître à rythme soutenu : 151 albums en 1998, 200 en 1999<ref name="ratier2000">[[Gilles Ratier]], ''2000, l'année des confirmations'', [[ACBD]].</ref>, 227 en 2000, 269 en 2001<ref name="ratier2001">[[Gilles Ratier]], ''2000, l'année de tous les records'', [[ACBD]].</ref>. À partir de 1999, Kana s'affirme comme le quatrième grand acteur du secteur. Cependant, alors qu'à cette date les principales séries japonaises à succès des années 1980 et 1990 sont traduites, et qu'elles atteignent parfois d'enviables chiffres de vente (au début du millénaire 120 000 exemplaires par volume de ''Dragon Ball''<ref name="ratier2000" />, environ 20 000 pour les séries les plus populaires<ref name="ratier2001" />), que les magazines dédiés vont commencer à se multiplier, que les rencontres d'amateurs ont de plus en plus de succès, qu'internet va favoriser le développement des mangas, le monde de la bande dessinée tel que le laisse percevoir le [[Festival d'Angoulême]] laisse peu de place à cette émergence, et les éditeurs alternatifs lui restent globalement indifférent, laissant inconnu au public le large patrimoine de bande dessinée d'auteur japonaise, hormis Taniguchi. Des séries plus récentes sont alors traduites, et remportent également un grand succès : en 2000 ''[[Hunter × Hunter]]'' de [[Yoshihiro Togashi]], ''[[Shaman King]]'' de [[Hiroyuki Takei]], ''[[One Piece]]'' d'[[Eiichirō Oda]], en 2001 ''[[Great Teacher Onizuka]]'' de [[Tōru Fujisawa ]], ''[[I¨s]]'' de [[Masakazu Katsura]], ''[[Samurai deeper Kyo]]'' d'[[Akimine Kamijyō]], ''[[Angel sanctuary]]'' de [[Kaori Yuki]], ''[[Monster]]'' de [[Naoki Urasawa]], en 2002 ''[[Love Hina]]'' de [[Ken Akamatsu]], ''[[Gunnm Last Order]]'' de Kishiro, ''[[Fruits Basket]]'' de [[Natsuki Takaya]], ''[[Naruto]]'' de [[Masashi Kishimoto]].
+These romances are sometimes long narratives that can deal with distinguishing between false and true love, coping with [[sexual intercourse]], and growing up in a complex world, themes inherited by subsequent animated versions of the story.<ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Drazen" /><ref>Schodt, 1996, ''op. cit.'', p. 14.</ref> These "coming of age" or ''[[bildungsroman]]'' themes occur in both ''shōjo'' and ''shōnen'' manga.<ref name="fn1">"The transformation into a superhero is in fact an allegory of becoming an adult." From Graillat, Ludovic 2006-2007 "[http://www.refractory.unimelb.edu.au/journalissues/vol10/graillat.html America vs. Japan: the Influence of American Comics on Manga]." ''Refractory: A Journal of Entertainment Media'', Volume 10. Accessed September 23, 2007. Literally, in German, ''bildungs'' = education and ''roman'' = novel, hence a novel about the education of the protagonist in "the ways of the world."</ref><ref name="Moretti">Moretti, Franco 1987. ''The Way of the World: The ''Bildungsroman'' in European Culture.'' London: Verso. ISBN 1859842984.</ref>
-====Depuis 2002 : les mangas dominateurs, et édités dans leur diversité====
+In the ''bildungsroman'', the [[protagonist]] must deal with adversity and conflict,<ref name="Moretti" /> and examples in ''shōjo'' manga of romantic conflict are common. They include [[Miwa Ueda]]'s ''[[Peach Girl]]'',<ref name="Peach1">{{cite web | url = http://www.animeondvd.com/reviews2/disc_reviews/6116.php | title = Peach Girl Vol. #1 (also w/box) (of 6) | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = Beveridge | first = Chris | date = 05/14/2007 | publisher = Anime on DVD}}</ref><ref name="Peach2">{{cite web | url = http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1041 | title = Peach Girl Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Tokyopop]]}}</ref>
-À partir de 2002, la hausse de la part des bandes dessinées asiatiques dans le marché des nouveautés s'accèlère, à la fois absolument (377 en 2002, 521 en 2003<ref name="ratier2003">[[Gilles Ratier]], ''2003, l'année de la consécration'', [[ACBD]].</ref>, 754 dont 614 mangas en 2004<ref name="ratier2005">[[Gilles Ratier]], ''2005, l'année de la mangalisation'', [[ACBD]].</ref>) et relativement (25% en 2002, 30% en 2003<ref name="ratier2003" />, 36% en 2004, 42% en 2005<ref name="ratier2005" />, 44% en 2006). Les mangas restent les bandes dessinées asiatiques les plus vendues (les vingt plus gros tirages sont japonais en 2005), leur coût plus et leur périodicité plus régulière que celle des bandes dessinées occidentales leur permet de toucher un public fidélisé, d'autant que les éditeurs peuvent sélectionner les bandes dessinées qui ont déjà passé l'épreuve du public au Japon. Tous créent des collections dédiées, voire tentent de lancer des mangas à la française. En 2003, le tirage des quinze plus grandes séries oscille entre 25 000 et 60 000 (''Yu-gi-oh'', et ''Naruto'' en 2004) exemplaires<ref name="ratier2003" />, et le fonds reste attractif (avec ''Dragon Ball'' surtout). En valeur, le marché est détenu à 80% par Pika, Kana et Glénat<ref name="ratier2005" />. En 2003, pour la première fois, un manga obtient un prix au [[Festival d'Angoulême]] : ''[[Quartier lointain]]'', de Taniguchi, pour le prix du scénario. C'est un début de reconnaissance.
+[[Fuyumi Soryo]]'s ''[[Mars (manga)|Mars]]'',<ref name="Mars">{{cite web | url = http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1029 | title = MARS Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Tokyopop]]}}</ref> and, for mature readers, [[Moyoco Anno]]'s ''[[Happy Mania]]'',<ref name="Thorn 2001" /><ref name="Mania">{{cite web | url = http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1115 | title = Happy Mania Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Tokyopop]]}}</ref> Yayoi Ogawa's ''Tramps Like Us'',<ref name="Tramps">{{cite web | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=3877 | title = Tramps Like Us (manga) | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Anime News Network]]}}</ref> and [[Ai Yazawa]]'s ''[[Nana (manga)|Nana]]''.<ref name="Nana1">{{cite web | url = http://manga.about.com/od/mangatitlesaz/p/nanaprofile.htm | title = Nana by Ai Yazawa - Series Profile and Story Summary | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = Aoki | first = Deb | publisher = [[About.com]]}}</ref><ref name="Nana2">{{cite web | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/nana-gn-1 | title = NANA G.novel 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = Bertschy | first = Zac | date = Dec 26 2005 | publisher = [[Anime News Network]]}}</ref> In another ''shōjo'' manga ''bildungsroman'' narrative device, the young heroine is transported to an alien place or time where she meets strangers and must survive on her own (including Hagio Moto's ''They Were Eleven'',<ref name="Moto">{{cite web | url = http://www.tcj.com/252/e_hagio.html | title = Three By Moto Hagio | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = Randall | first = Bill | publisher = The Comics Journal}}</ref> Kyoko Hikawa's ''[[From Far Away]]'',<ref name="Far">{{cite web | url = http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/2005/03/review/06.php | title = From Far Away Vol. 2 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = King | first = Patrick | publisher = Anime Fringe}}</ref> [[Yû Watase]]'s ''[[Fushigi Yûgi: The Mysterious Play]]'',<ref name="Fushigi">{{cite web | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1539 | title = Fushigi Yugi (manga) | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Anime News Network]]}}</ref> and [[Chiho Saito]]'s ''The World Exists For Me'').<ref name="World">{{cite web | url = http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1477/TheWorldExistsforMe/2.html | title = The World Exists for Me Volume 2 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Tokyopop]]}}</ref>
-Le fait qu'en 2005, plus de mangas que d'albums traditionnels aient été édités a fait écrire à [[Gilles Ratier]] que 2005 avait été en France « l'année de la mangalisation<ref name="ratier2005" /> », sans qu'il s'en offusque, contrairement à d'autres acteurs du secteur. 1142 bandes dessinées asiatiques (soit 42% des nouveautés) sont en effet éditées en 2005 dont 937 mangas<ref name="ratier2005" />, et 1418 en 2006 (soit 44% des nouveautés), dont 1110 mangas<ref name="ratier2006">[[Gilles Ratier]], ''2006, l'année de la maturation'', [[ACBD]].</ref>. Les tirages à la nouveauté des bandes dessinées japonaises les plus populaires n'ont plus rien à envier à ceux des bandes dessinées traditionnelles populaires : 130 000 exemplaires pour ''Naruto'', 80 000 pour ''Samurai deeper Kyo'' ou ''[[Fullmetal alchemist]]'' (d'[[Hiromu Arakawa]], traduit à partir de 2005), 70 000 pour ''Gunnm last order'', ''Hunter × Hunter'', ''Yu-gi-oh'', ''Fruits Basket'' et ''Shaman King'', 65 000 pour ''[[Neko Majin]]'' de Toriyama, 60 000 pour ''[[Air Gear]]'' (d'[[Ōgure Ito]], traduit à partir de 2006) et ''[[One Piece]]'' d'[[Eiichirō Oda]]<ref name="ratier2006" />. Début 2006, la France est, avec 10 millions d'exemplaires annuels, le plus gros « consommateur » de ''manga'' au monde après le Japon et devant les États-Unis {{ref nec}}. Les ''manga'' représentent 45&nbsp;% du chiffre d'affaires de la bande dessinée et constituent la plus forte progression derrière la fiction jeunesse, se plaçant en deuxième position des secteurs de l'édition les plus dynamiques.
+Yet another such device involves meeting unusual or strange people and beings, for example, [[Natsuki Takaya]]'s ''[[Fruits Basket]]''<ref name="FB">{{cite web | url = http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1194/FruitsBasket/1.html | title = Fruits Basket Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Tokyopop]]}}</ref>—one of the most popular ''shōjo'' manga in the [[United States]]<ref name="ICV2"> "Top 50 Manga Properties for Spring 2007: Fruits Basket." ''ICv2 Guide to Manga'', Number 45, pp. 6, 8.</ref>—whose orphaned heroine Tohru must survive living in the woods in a house filled with people who can transform into the animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Harako Iida's ''[[Crescent Moon]]'', heroine Mahiru meets a group of [[supernatural]] beings, finally to discover that she herself too has a supernatural ancestry when she and a young tengu demon fall in love.<ref name="Cresc">{{cite web | url = http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1244 | title = Crescent Moon Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Tokyopop]]}}</ref>
-Parallèllement à ce succès populaire, les maisons d'éditions développent l'édition patrimoniale<ref>Ainsi, [http://www.bedetheque.com/index.php?R=1&RechSerie=&RechAuteur=tezuka&RechEditeur=&RechCollection=&RechDL=&RechStyle=&RechISBN=&Ordre=dl plus de 150 volumes] de Tezuka ont été publiés depuis 1997.</ref> et celle de bandes dessinées d'auteurs : [[Vertige Graphic]] réédite ''Gen d'Hiroshima'' et publie [[Yoshihiro Tatsumi]], un des pères du [[Gekiga]] à partir de 2003, [[Ego comme X]] traduit ''[[L'Homme sans talent]]'' de [[Yoshiharu Tsuge]] en 2004 et Kana ''[[Number 5]]'' de Matsumoto en 2005, [[Cornélius]] publie [[Shigeru Mizuki]] depuis 2006, avec succès puisque ''[[NonNonBâ]]'' obtient le [[Prix du meilleur album]] à Angoulême en 2007, respectabilité qui avalise la forte pénétration de la bande dessinée japonaise sur le marché français.
+With the superheroines, ''shōjo'' manga continued to break away from neo-Confucianist norms of female meekness and obedience.<ref name="Schodt 1996" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /> [[Naoko Takeuchi]]'s ''[[Sailor Moon]]'' (''Bishōjo Senshi Seiramun'': "Pretty Girl Soldier Sailor Moon") is a sustained, 18-volume narrative about a group of young heroines simultaneously heroic and introspective, active and emotional, dutiful and ambitious.<ref name="Allison">Allison, Anne 2000. "Sailor Moon: Japanese superheroes for global girls." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) ''Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture''. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 259-278. ISBN 978-0765605610.</ref><ref name="Grigsby">Grigsby, Mary 1999 "The social production of gender as reflected in two Japanese culture industry products: ''Sailormoon'' and ''Crayon Shinchan''." In: John A. Lent, editor ''Themes and Issues in Asian Cartooning: Cute, Cheap, Mad, and Sexy.'' Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. pp. 183-210. ISBN 0879727802.</ref> The combination proved extremely successful, and ''Sailor Moon'' became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats.<ref name="Allison" /><ref>Schodt, 1996, ''op. cit.'', p 92.</ref> Another example is [[CLAMP (manga artists)|CLAMP]]'s ''[[Magic Knight Rayearth]],'' whose three young heroines, Hikaru, Umi, and Fuu, are magically transported to the world of Cephiro to become armed magical warriors in the service of saving Cephiro from internal and external enemies.<ref name="MKR1">{{cite web | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1565 | title = Magic Knight Rayearth (manga) | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = | first = | date = | work = | publisher = [[Anime News Network]]}}</ref><ref name="MKR2">{{cite web | url = http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1017/MagicKnightRayearthI/ | title = Magic Knight Rayearth I Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Tokyopop]]}}</ref>
-== Le système de prépublication ==
+The superheroine subgenre also extensively developed the notion of teams (''[[sentai]]'') of girls working together,<ref name="Poitras">Poitras, Gilles 2001. ''Anime Essentials: Everything a Fan Needs to Know.'' Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge. ISBN 1880656531.</ref> like the Sailor Senshi in ''Sailor Moon'', the Magic Knights in ''Magic Knight Rayearth'', and the Mew Mew girls from [[Mia Ikumi]]'s ''[[Tokyo Mew Mew]]''.<ref name="Mew">{{cite web | url = http://www.tokyopop.com/shop/1114/TokyoMewMew/1.html | title = Tokyo Mew Mew Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Tokyopop]]}}</ref> By today, the superheroine narrative template has been widely used and parodied within the shōjo manga tradition (e.g., [[Nao Yazawa]]'s ''[[Wedding Peach]]''<ref name="Wedding">{{cite web | url = http://www.viz.com/products/products.php?series_id=198 | title = Wedding Peach | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Viz Media]]}}</ref> and ''[[Hyper Rune]]'' by [[Tamayo Akiyama]]<ref name="Rune">{{cite web | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/right-turn-only/2004-11-20 | title = RIGHT TURN ONLY!! Sugar Rush | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = Cooper | first = Liann | date = November 20 2004 | publisher = [[Anime News Network]]}}</ref>) and outside that tradition, e.g., in [[bishōjo]] comedies like [[Kanan]]'s ''[[Galaxy Angel]]''.<ref name="Gal">{{cite web | url = http://www.broccolibooks.com/books/ga/ga_index.htm | title = Galaxy Angel | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = Broccoli Books}}</ref>
-[[Image:MangaStoreJapan.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Magasin de manga au Japon]]
-Les ''manga'' japonais sont très rarement édités directement sous forme de volumes reliés. Ils paraissent tout d'abord de manière découpée dans des [[Magazine de prépublication de manga|magazines de prépublication]], des revues spécialisées qui leur sont consacrées.
-Les rythmes de publication de ces magazines peuvent beaucoup varier, allant de l'hebdomadaire aux publications mensuelles voire trimestrielles. Les séries y sont souvent publiées par chapitres d'une vingtaine de pages. À l'intérieur d'un même magazine, le papier peut parfois changer de couleur, afin de distinguer rapidement – les ''manga'' se lisent toujours rapidement – les différentes séries les unes des autres.
+In the mid-1980s and thereafter, as girls who had read ''shōjo'' manga as teenagers matured and entered the job market, ''shōjo'' manga elaborated subgenres directed at women in their 20s and 30s.<ref name="Ogi" /> This "Ladies Comic" subgenre (in Japanese, ''redisu'' レディース, ''redikomi'' レヂィーコミ, and ''josei'') has dealt with themes of young adulthood: jobs, the emotions and problems of sexual intercourse, and friendships or love among women.<ref name="Ogi" /><ref name="Ito1">Ito, Kinko 2002. "The world of Japanese 'Ladies Comics': From romantic fantasy to lustful perversion." ''Journal of Popular Culture'', 36(1):68-85.</ref><ref name="Ito2">Ito, Kinko 2003. "Japanese Ladies' Comics as agents of socialization: The lessons they teach." ''International Journal of Comic Art'', 5(2):425-436.</ref><ref name="Jones">Jones, Gretchen 2002. "'Ladies' Comics': Japan's not-so-underground market in pornography for women." ''U.S.-Japan Women's Journal (English Supplement)'', Number 22, pp. 3-31.</ref><ref name="Shamoon">Shamoon, Deborah 2004. "Office slut and rebel flowers: The pleasures of Japanese pornographic comics for women." In: Linda Williams (editor) ''Porn Studies''. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 77-103.</ref>
-Ces magazines, bon marché, s'écoulent en grand nombre, c'est-à-dire en millions d'exemplaires, et se lisent un peu partout. On en retrouve parfois abandonnés dans les trains, les rames de métro, les cafés, etc. Ils alimentent un système de lectures multiples : un magazine serait lu par plusieurs personnes.
+Redisu manga retains many of the narrative stylistics of ''shōjo'' manga but has been drawn by and written for adult women.<ref>Schodt, 1996, ''op. cit.'', pp 124-129.</ref> Redisu manga has been often, but not always, sexually explicit, but sexuality has characteristically been set into complex narratives of pleasure and erotic arousal combined with emotional risk.<ref name="Schodt 1996" /><ref name="Ito1" /><ref name="Ito2" /> Examples include [[Ramiya Ryo]]'s ''[[Luminous Girls]]'',<ref name="Ryo">Ramiya Ryo (no date) "Luminous Girls." Tokyo: France Shoin Comic House. ISBN 4829682019.</ref> [[Masako Watanabe]]'s ''[[Kinpeibai]]''<ref>Toku, 2005, ''op. cit.'', p. 59.</ref> and the work of [[Shungicu Uchida]]<ref>Schodt, 1996, ''op. cit.'', pp. 173-177.</ref> Another subgenre of ''shōjo''-''redisu'' manga deals with emotional and sexual relationships among women (''akogare'' and ''yuri''),<ref name="Yuri"> Bando, Kishiji (no date) "[http://www.yuricon.org/essays/symg.html Shoujo Yuri Manga Guide]." Accessed September 23, 2007.</ref> in work by Erica Sakurazawa,<ref name="Sakurazawa">{{cite web | url = http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/2003/12/reviews/06/ | title = Erica Sakurazawa's Nothing But Loving You | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = Font | first = Dillon | publisher = Anime Fringe}}</ref> Ebine Yamaji,<ref name="Yamaji">{{cite web | url = http://gaycomicslist.free.fr/pages/blogarch.php?month=2006-10 | title = Fan translations of Ebine Yamaji's yuri mangas | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | last = | first = | date = | work = | publisher = The Gay Comics List}}</ref> and [[Chiho Saito]].<ref name="PCUtena"> Perper, Timothy & Martha Cornog 2006. "In the Sound of the Bells: Freedom and Revolution in ''Revolutionary Girl Utena''." Mechademia, An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:183-186.</ref> Other subgenres of ''shōjo''-''redisu'' manga have also developed, e.g., fashion (''oshare'') manga, like [[Ai Yazawa]]'s ''[[Paradise Kiss]]''<ref name="Masanao">Masanao, Amano 2004. ''Manga Design.'' Koln, Germany: Taschen GMBH. pp. 526-529. ISBN 3822825913.</ref><ref name="PKiss">{{cite web | url = http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1044 | title = Paradise Kiss Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = [[Tokyopop]]}}</ref> and horror-vampire-gothic manga, like [[Matsuri Hino]]'s ''[[Vampire Knight]]'',<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.shojobeat.com/manga/vk/ | title = Vampire Knight by Matsuri Hino | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = Shojo Beat }}</ref> [[Kaori Yuki]]'s ''Cain Saga'',<ref name="Cain">{{cite web | url = http://www.shojobeat.com/manga/gc/bio.php | title = Kaori Yuki | accessdate = 2007-09-26 | publisher = Shojo Beat}}</ref> and [[Mitsukazu Mihara]]'s ''[[DOLL (manga)|DOLL]]'',<ref name="DOLL">{{cite web | url = http://www.tokyopop.com/shop/1277/DollSoftcover/1.html | title = Doll Volume 1 | accessdate = 2007-11-14 | publisher = [[Tokyopop]]}}</ref> which interact with street fashions, costume play ("[[cosplay]]"), [[J-Pop]] music, and [[goth]] subcultures in complex ways.<ref name ="Fruits">Shoichi Aoki 2001 Fruits. New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0714840831.</ref><ref name="Winge">Winge, Theresa 2006. "Costuming the imagination: Origins of anime and manga cosplay." ''Mechademia: An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts'', 1:65-76.</ref><ref name="Macias">Macias, Patrick, Evers, Izumi, and Nonaka, Kazumi (illustrator). 2004.''Japanese Schoolgirl Inferno: Tokyo Teen Fashion Subculture Handbook''. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books. ISBN 9780811856904.</ref>
-Principalement en noir-et-blanc, les premières pages des magazines sont souvent en couleurs, mettant tour à tour à l'honneur l'une de leur série vedette à cet emplacement, souvent de manière à ce que le chapitre en cours soit un début de volumes.
+By the start of the 21st century, manga for women and girls thus represented a broad spectrum of material for pre- and early teenagers to material for adult women.
-Ce n'est que dans un deuxième temps, lorsqu'un ''manga'' rencontre un certain succès, qu'il est édité en volumes reliés, similaire à ceux que l'on trouve en France, entamant ainsi une deuxième carrière. Ces volumes reliés sont appelés ''[[tankōbon]]'' (format poche), ''bunkōbon'' (format plus compact, utilisé pour des rééditions) ou ''wide-ban'' (format «&nbsp;luxe&nbsp;», plus grand que le format poche). En l'absence de succès auprès du public, une série pourra voir sa parution arrêtée, le ''mangaka'' étant prévenu peu avant pour trouver une fin rapide à son histoire et permettre une éventuelle parution en volumes. Certaines revues décident désormais de la fin d'une série dès la fin du second volume, conduisant à des histoires finales en quatre volumes. Dans certains cas, un ''manga'' à succès peut se voir adapté en [[anime]] ([[dessin animé]]).
+== Publications ==
+<!--In a sense, this section focuses on how manga is published, how much is published, and basically describes the state of the current industry.-->
+[[Image:Manga reading direction.png|thumb|150px|The reading direction in a traditional manga.]]
+In Japan, manga constitutes a 40.67 billion [[Japanese yen|Yen]] (359 million USD) publication industry for 2007.<ref name="IndustrySize">{{cite web | url = http://www.inside-games.jp/news/258/25855.html | title = 2007年のオタク市場規模は1866億円―メディアクリエイトが白書 | date = 2007-12-18 | publisher = Inside for Business | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | work = }}</ref> On average many <!--need more exact number-->volumes of manga are printed annually. The manga industry expanded worldwide. Distribution companies license and reprint manga into their native languages.
-Quelques [[Magazine de prépublication de manga|magazines de prépublication]] hebdomadaires :
+When a series has been running for a while, the stories are usually collected together and printed in dedicated book-sized volumes, called [[tankōbon]]. These are the equivalent of U.S. comic's [[Trade paperback (comics)|trade paperbacks]]. These volumes use higher-quality paper, and are useful to those who want to "catch up" with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive. Recently, "deluxe" versions have also been printed as readers have got older and the need for something special grew. Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 [[Japanese yen|yen]] (about [[Dollar sign|$]]1 U.S. dollar) each to compete with the used book market.
-*''[[Weekly Shōnen Jump]]'' ([[Shūeisha]]),
-*''[[Weekly Shōnen Magazine]]'' ([[Kōdansha]]),
-*''[[Shōnen Sunday]]'' ([[Shōgakukan]]).
-Certains titres atteignent couramment les 400 pages hebdomadaires, avec des tirages avoisinant les 6 millions d'exemplaires.
+Manga are primarily classified by the age and gender of the target audience. In particular, books and magazines sold to boys (''[[shōnen]]'') and girls (''[[shōjo]]'') have distinctive cover art and are placed on different shelves in most bookstores. Due to cross-readership, consumer response is not limited by demographics. For example, male readers subscribing to a series intended for girls and so on.
-== Techniques spécifiques au genre ==
+[[Japan]] also has manga cafés, or ''manga kissa'' (kissa is an abbreviation of [[kissaten]]). At a manga kissa, people drink [[coffee (drink)|coffee]] and read manga, and sometimes stay there overnight.
-[[Image:Schéma lecture manga.png|right|thumb|Direction de lecture d'un ''manga''.]]
-Techniquement parlant, les ''manga'' sont presque toujours en noir et blanc. En effet, ils sont la plupart du temps publiés dans un premier temps dans des revues peu coûteuses, sur du papier recyclé, et souvent seules les premières pages de la revue (correspondant à une mise en avant d'une série particulière) ont droit à de la couleur. C'est ainsi que l'on retrouve parfois des pages en couleur au beau milieu des œuvres éditées par la suite séparément.
-Notons au passage que les ''mangas'' comptent souvent un nombre de pages (de planches) très importants. À titre d'exemple, une BD européenne contiendra une quarantaine de planches quand le ''manga'' en comptera plus d'une centaine, et parfois même plus de deux cents. Par ailleurs, le ''manga'' est le plus souvent une série en plusieurs volumes. Au final, le nombre total de planches racontant une histoire dans un ''manga'' est beaucoup plus élevé que dans une BD à l'européenne (même s'il s'agit d'une série). Ceci affecte par conséquent beaucoup la structure du récit et sa narration. D'où des techniques propres au ''manga''.
+Traditionally, manga are written from top to bottom and [[Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts|right to left]], as this is the traditional reading pattern of the Japanese written language. Some publishers of translated manga keep this format, but other publishers flip the pages horizontally, changing the reading direction to left to right, so as not to confuse foreign audiences or traditional [[comics]] consumers. This practice is known as "flipping". For the most part, the criticisms suggest that flipping goes against the original intentions of the creator (for example, if a person wears a shirt that reads "MAY" on it, and gets flipped, then the word is altered to "YAM"). Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts, such as a car being depicted with gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right.
-Le dessin, en général, est moins «&nbsp;statique&nbsp;» que dans les bandes dessinées occidentales. Le ''manga'' utilise un découpage temporel proche de celui du [[cinéma]], adoptant souvent ses cadrages et utilisant une décomposition du temps et de l'action. Les personnages ont souvent de grands yeux, ce qui permet de renforcer l'expressivité du visage. De nombreux codes graphiques sont utilisés pour symboliser l'état émotionnel ou physique d'un protagoniste. L'étonnement, par exemple, est souvent traduit par la chute du personnage ; l'évanouissement, par une croix remplaçant les yeux. Dans le ''manga'' ''[[City Hunter]]'' (connu sur le petit écran français sous le nom ''Nicky Larson''), la colère de Kaori (Laura) est souvent traduite par la sortie inopinée d'une énorme massue qu'elle assène sur la tête de son partenaire.
+=== Magazines ===
+Manga magazines usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20&ndash;40 pages allocated to each series per issue. These manga magazines, or "anthology magazines", as they are also known (colloquially "phone books"), are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages long. Manga magazines also contain [[One-shot (comics)|one-shot comics]] and various four-panel ''[[yonkoma]]'' (equivalent to [[comic strip]]s). Manga series can run for many years if they are successful. [[Mangaka|Manga artists]] sometimes start out with a few "one-shot" manga projects just to try to get their name out. If these are successful and receive good reviews, they are continued.
-Il y a également une fréquente utilisation d'onomatopées relatives aux mouvements, actions ou pensées des personnages. Notons au passage que le japonais est beaucoup plus riche que le français en onomatopées et que leur champ d'application est plus large, incluant des concepts surprenants tels que l'onomatopée du sourire (''niko niko''), du silence (''shiiin'') ou encore du scintillement (''pika pika'', d'où le nom de [[Pikachu]]).
+Some relatively well-known publications are:
-Une particularité à noter est que la plupart des personnages ont souvent des traits occidentaux, au-delà du simple tracé des grands yeux des personnages. Un samouraï roux, un exorciste aux yeux bleus ou une écolière blonde n'ont rien d'étonnant pour le lecteur japonais, même s'ils sont censés être japonais ou de culture japonaise. La simple nécessité de distinguer physiquement entre deux personnages ne suffit pas toujours à expliquer cet aspect de la narration, puisque certains ''mangaka'' choisissent de donner à tous leurs personnages un aspect purement japonais, sans que cela ne pose de problème à la compréhension de l'histoire. Certains y voient une façon d'afficher un attrait pour l'Occident, qui apparaît largement ailleurs dans la vie quotidienne au Japon.
+* ''[[Weekly Shonen Jump]]''
+* ''[[Big Comic Original]]''
+* ''[[Shonen Sunday]]''
+* ''[[Ribon]]''
+* ''[[Nakayoshi]]''
+* ''[[Young Animal]]''
+* ''[[Shojo Beat]]''
-Les décors des scènes sont parfois moins fouillés que pour une bande dessinée occidentale. Cela peut aller jusqu'à faire évoluer les personnages dans un décor blanc. Ce parti pris a pour conséquence de focaliser l'attention du lecteur sur l'histoire en général et sur les dialogues en particulier. On note ainsi une certaine résurgence de l'aspect théâtral.
+Other magazines such as the anime magazine ''[[Newtype]]'' features single chapters within their monthly periodicals.
-Enfin, les personnages ont souvent des attitudes expressives à outrance : la colère, la jalousie ou la gêne se montrent facilement, alors que cette attitude est plutôt mal vue dans la culture japonaise, où le calme et la retenue sont de rigueur dans les rapports sociaux. Le passage de l'absurde et du comique au sérieux ou au drame, sans aucune transition, fait également partie de la narration, sans jamais susciter d'interrogation de la part du lecteur qui accepte par avance cette convention de lecture.
+=== ''Dōjinshi'' ===
+Some [[Mangaka|manga artists]] will produce extra, sometimes unrelated material, which are known as ''[[omake]]'' (lit. "bonus" or "extra"). They might also publish their unfinished drawings or sketches, known as ''[[oekaki]]'' (lit. "sketches"). Unofficial fan-made [[comics]] are also called ''dōjinshi''. Some dōjinshi continue with a series' story or write an entirely new one using its characters, much like [[fan fiction]]. In 2007, doujinshi sold for 27.73 billion Yen (245 million USD).<ref name="IndustrySize" />
-Une autre particularité est le jeu de l'auteur avec le lecteur. Ainsi, dans ''[[Rough (manga)|Rough]]'', on peut voir les personnages faire de la publicité pour d'autres ''manga'' de l'auteur, ou bien ramasser des [[phylactère]]s tombés sur le sol.
+''[[Dōjinshi]]'' is produced by small amateur publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market in a similar fashion to [[Small press|small-press]] independently published [[comic book]]s in the [[United States]]. [[Comiket]], the largest comic book [[Convention (meeting)|convention]] in the world with over 400,000 gathering in 3 days, is devoted to ''dōjinshi''.
-De manière générale, on peut noter une plus grande liberté quant à l'interaction entre les dessins et leur support (jeu avec les cadres, personnages sortant des cadres, etc.)
+=== ''Gekiga'' ===
+<!--a gekiga image would be nice here-->
+''[[Gekiga]]'' literally means "drama pictures" and refers to a form of ''[[aesthetic realism]]'' in manga.<ref name="SchodtG">Schodt, 1986, ''op. cit.'', pp. 68-73.</ref><ref name="GravettG">Gravett, 2004, ''op. cit.'', pp. 38-42.</ref> Gekiga style drawing is emotionally dark, often starkly realistic, sometimes very violent, and focuses on the day-in, day-out grim realities of life, often drawn in gritty and unpretty fashions.<ref name="SchodtG"/><ref name = "GravettGekiga">{{cite web | first = Paul | last = Gravett | title = Gekiga: The Flipside of Manga | url = http://www.paulgravett.com/articles/058_gekiga/058_gekiga.htm | accessdate  = 2007-12-20}}</ref> Gekiga arose in the late 1950s and 1960s partly from left-wing student and working class political activism<ref name="SchodtG"/><ref name="Isao">{{citation | last = Isao | first = Shimizu | editor-last = Lent | editor-first = John A. | contribution = Red Comic Books: The Origins of Modern Japanese Manga | title = Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books | year = 2001 | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | location = Honolulu, HI | isbn = 978-0824824716}}</ref> and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like [[Tatsumi Yoshihiro]] with existing manga.<ref>Isao, 2001, ''op. cit.'', pp. 147-149.</ref><ref name="Nunez">{{citation | first = Irma | last = Nunez | title = Alternative Comics Heroes: Tracing the Genealogy of Gekiga. | newspaper = The Japan Times | date = September 24, 2006 | url = http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fb20060924a1.html | accessdate = 2007-12-19}}</ref> Examples include ''[[Sampei Shirato]]'' 's 1959-1962 ''Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments'' (''Ninja Bugeichō''), the story of Kagemaru, the leader of a peasant rebellion in the 1500s, which dealt directly with oppression and class struggle,<ref name="SchodtG1">Schodt, 1986, ''op. cit.'', pp. 70-71.</ref> and ''[[Hiroshi Hirata]]'''s ''[[Satsuma Gishiden]]'', about uprisings against the Tokugawa shogunate.<ref name="Hirata">{{cite web | url = http://www.darkhorse.com/search/search.php?frompage=userinput&sstring=Hirata&x=11&y=9 | title = Search results: Hirata | publisher = Dark Horse | accessdate = 2007-12-19}}</ref>
-Dans les ''manga'' destinés à la jeunesse, les ''kanji'', caractères chinois ou [[sinogramme]]s, sont souvent accompagnés de ''[[furigana]]'' pour faciliter la lecture.
+As the social protest of these early years waned, gekiga shifted in meaning towards socially conscious, mature drama and towards the avant-garde.<ref name="GravettG"/><ref name="Nunez" /><ref>{{cite web | first = Udagawa | last = Takeo | title = Home Manga Zombie: Manga Zombie - Preface | url = http://comipress.com/special/manga-zombie/manga-zombie-preface | date = [[2007-10-15]] | publisher = Comi Press | accessdate = 2007-12-19}}</ref> Examples include Koike and Kojima's ''[[Lone Wolf and Cub]]''<ref>Schodt, 1986, ''op. cit.'', p. 72.</ref> and ''[[Akira]]'', an apocalyptic tale of motorcycle gangs, street war, and inexplicable transformations of the children of a future Tokyo.<ref>{{cite web | first = Jennifer | last = Weiss | title = The Manga Graphic Novel: A Primer | url = http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/427650/the_manga_graphic_novel_a_primer.html | publisher = [[Associated Content]] | date = 2007-11-01 | accessdate = 2007-12-20}}</ref> Another example is [[Osamu Tezuka]]'s 1976 manga ''MW'', a bitter story of the aftermath of the storage and possibly deliberate release of poison gas by US armed forces based in Okinawa years after World War II.<ref>{{citation | first = Tom | last = Flinn | year = 2008 | title = MW | magazine = ICv2 | issue = 50 | pages = pp. 17-18}}</ref> Gekiga and the social consciousness it embodies remain alive in modern-day manga. An example is ''[[Ikebukuro West Gate Park]]'' from 2001 by ''[[Ira Ishida]]'' and ''[[Sena Aritou]]'', a story of street thugs, rape, and vengeance set on the social margins of the wealthy [[Ikebukuro]] district of Tokyo.<ref>{{cite web | last = Pfaender | first = Fabien | title =IWGP, t.1 | url = http://www.planetebd.com/BD/IWGP-1701.html | publisher = planetebd.com | accessdate = 2007-12-20}}</ref>
-== Types de ''manga'' ==
+==International markets==
+The influence of manga on international cartooning has grown considerably in the last two decades.<ref name="wired">Pink, Daniel H. 2007. "Japan, Ink: Inside the Manga Industrial Complex." ''Wired Magazine'', Issue 15.11, October 22. http://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/magazine/15-11/ff_manga "Japanese comics have gripped the global imagination," first page. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Wong2"> Wong, Wendy (No Date) "The Presence of Manga in Europe and North America." http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Influence refers to effects on comics markets outside of Japan and to aesthetic effects on comics artists internationally.
-Les revues de ''manga'' sont généralement destinées à une catégorie d'âge précise :
+===United States===
-* ''[[Redisu|Josei]]'' ({{lang|ja|女性}}) pour les jeunes femmes et adultes ;
+Manga were introduced only gradually into US markets, first in association with anime and then independently.<ref name="Patten"/> Some US fans were aware of manga in the 1970s and early 1980s.<ref name="Patten2">In 1987, "...Japanese comics were more legendary than accessible to American readers", Patten, 2004, ''op. cit.'', p. 259.</ref> However, anime was initially more accessible than manga to US fans,<ref name="NapierFan">For video-centered fan culture, see Susan J. Napier 2000 "Anime: From ''Akira'' to ''Princess Mononoke''." NY:Palgrave. Appendix, pp. 239-256 (ISBN 0-312-23863-0) and Jonathan Clements & Helen McCarthy 2006 "The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917, Revised and Expanded Edition." Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press, pp. 475-476 (ISBN 1-933330-10-4).</ref> many of whom were college-age young people who found it easier to obtain, subtitle and exhibit video tapes of anime than translate, reproduce, and distribute ''[[tankobon]]''-style manga books.<ref name="Patten"/><ref>Schodt, 1996, ''op. cit.'', chapter 7, pp. 305-340.</ref><ref name="Leonard">Leonard, Sean. 2003. "Progress Against the Law: Fan Distribution, Copyright, and the Explosive Growth of Japanese Animation." http://web.mit.edu/seantek/www/papers/progress-columns.pdf Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> One of the first manga translated into English and marketed in the US was [[Keiji Nakazawa]]'s ''[[Barefoot Gen]]'', an autobiographical story of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima issued by Leonard Rifas and Educomics (1980-1983).<ref>Schodt, 1996, ''op. cit.'', pp. 309.</ref><ref name="Rifas">Rifas, Leonard. 2004. "Globalizing Comic Books from Below: How Manga Came to America." ''International Journal of Comic Art'', 6(2):138-171.</ref> More manga were translated between the mid-1980s and 1990s, including ''[[Golgo 13]]'' in 1986, ''[[Lone Wolf and Cub]]'' from [[[[First Comics]] in 1987, and ''[[Kamui]]'', ''[[Area 88]]'', and ''[[Mai the Psychic Girl]]'', also in 1987 and all from [[Viz]]-[[Eclipse Comics]].<ref>Patten, 2004, ''op. cit.'', pp. 37, 259-260.</ref><ref name="Thompson">Thompson, Jason. 2007. "Manga: The Complete Guide." NY: Ballantine Books. p. xv.</ref> Others soon followed, including ''[[Akira]]'' from [[Marvel Comics]]-[[Epic Comics]] and ''[[Appleseed]]'' from Eclipse Comics in 1988, and later ''Iczer-1'' ([[Antarctic Press]], 1994)<ref name="iczer1">http://www.animanga.com/Iczer/golden-warrior.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and [[Ippongi Bang]]'s ''[[F-111 Bandit]]'' (Antarctic Press, 1995).<ref name="Bang"> Bang, Ippongi. 1995. "F-III Bandit." San Antonio, TX:Antarctic Press.</ref>
-* ''[[Kodomo]]'' ({{lang|ja|子供}}) : pour les jeunes enfants ;
-* ''[[Redisu]]'' ({{lang|ja|レディース}}, ''Lady's'') : pour les femmes adultes.
-* ''[[Seijin]]'' ({{lang|ja|成人}}) : pour les hommes adultes ;
-* ''[[Seinen]]'' ({{lang|ja|青年}}) : destinés aux jeunes hommes et adultes ;
-* ''[[Shōjo]]'' ({{lang|ja|少女}}) : destinés aux jeunes filles adolescentes, manga sentimental;
-* ''[[Shōnen]]'' ({{lang|ja|少年}}) : pour les jeunes garçons adolescents.
-On distingue aussi certains genres particuliers :
+In the 1980s to the mid-1990s, Japanese animation, like ''[[Akira]]'', ''[[Dragonball]]'', ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'', ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]'', and ''[[Pokémon]]'', dominated the fan experience and the market compared to manga.<ref name="Leonard" /><ref>Patten, 2004, ''op. cit.'', pp. 52-73.</ref><ref name="Thompson2">Farago, Andrew, 2007. ''Interview: Jason Thompson.'' http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Matters changed when translator-entrpreneur [[Toren Smith]] founded [[Studio Proteus]] in 1986. Smith and Studio Proteus acted as an agent and translator of many Japanese manga, including [[Masamune Shirow]]'s ''[[Appleseed]]'' and [[Kosuke Fujishima]]'s ''[[Oh My Goddess]]'', for [[Dark Horse]] and [[Eros Comix]], eliminating the need for these publishers to seek their own contacts in Japan.<ref name="Schodt 1996A">Schodt, 1996, ''op. cit.'',  pp. 318-321.</ref><ref name="Smith">Gilman, Michael. (No Date.) "Interview: Toren Smith." http://www.darkhorse.com/news/interviews.php?id=622 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Simultaneously, the Japanese publisher [[Shogakukan]] opened a US market initiative with their US subsidiary Viz, enabling Viz to draw directly on Shogakukan's catalogue and translation skills.<ref name="Thompson">http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
-* ''[[Shōnen#Nekketsu|Nekketsu]]'' : Terme signifiant ''sang brûlant'' désignant les manga shônen mettant en scène des héros exaltés défendant des valeurs viriles traditionnelles telles que le courage, l'amitié et le dépassement de soi ;
-* ''[[Ecchi]]'' ({{lang|ja|Ｈ}} ou {{lang|ja|エッチ}}) : ''manga'' érotique (attention, le terme ''Ecchi'' est également utilisé pour les images érotiques stylisées ''manga'') ;
-* ''[[Gekiga]]'' ({{lang|ja|劇画}}) : ''manga'' dramatique des années 1960-70 ;
-* ''[[Hentai]]'' ({{lang|ja|変態}}) : ''manga'' pornographique hétérosexuel (idem que pour l'''Ecchi'', cependant à la différence des images ''Ecchi'', les images ''Hentaï'' présentent souvent des scènes explicites) ;
-* ''[[Jidai mono|Jidaimono]]'' ({{lang|ja|時代物}}) : ''manga'' historique ;
-* ''[[Moe (Japon)|Moé]]'' ({{lang|ja|萌え}}) : ''manga'' tourné vers un sentiment ou une affection fétichiste pour un personnage ;
-* ''[[Shitei]]'' : ''manga'' de type humoristique pour petits et grands ;
-* ''[[Shōjo-ai]]'' ({{lang|ja|少女愛}}) : romance sentimentale entre femmes ;
-* ''[[Shōnen-ai]]'' ({{lang|ja|少年愛}}) : romance sentimentale entre hommes ;
-* ''[[Suiri]]'' ({{lang|ja|推理}}) : policier, ''manga'' tourné vers le meurtre ;
-* ''[[Yaoi]]'' ({{lang|ja|やおい}}) : romance sexuelle entre hommes, genre destiné aux femmes (certaines scènes peuvent être parfois censurées).
-* ''[[Yonkoma]]'' ({{lang|ja|四コマ}}) : ''manga'' en quatre cases (équivalent du ''comic strip''), souvent humoristique ;
-* ''[[Yuri]]'' : romance sexuelle entre femmes, genre destiné aux hommes (certaines scènes peuvent être parfois censurées).
-Dans les pays francophones, seules quatre catégories sont couramment publiées : ''Shōjo'', ''Shōnen'', ''Seinen'' et ''Shitei''.
+The US manga market took an upturn with mid-1990s anime and manga versions of Masamune Shirow's ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'', translated by [[Frederik L. Schodt]] and Toren Smith and becoming very popular among fans.<ref name="GITSpopularity">Of 2918 respondents, 2008 ranked the anime as either Masterpiece, Excellent, or Very Good (http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=465). Of 178 respondents, 142 ranked the manga as either Masterpiece, Excellent, or Very Good (http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1590). See also Mays, Jonathan. February 21, 2003. Review: Ghost in the Shell. http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/ghost-in-the-shell/dvd. Accessed 2007-12-16.</ref> Another success of the mid-1990s was ''[[Sailor Moon]]''.<ref>Patten, 2004, ''op. cit.'', pp. 50, 110, 124, 128, 135.</ref><ref name="MixxHist">Arnold, Adam. 2000. "Full Circle: The Unofficial History of MixxZine." http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/00.06/feature/1/index.php3 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> By 1995-1998, the ''Sailor Moon'' manga had been exported to over 23 countries, including China, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, most of Europe and North America.<ref>Schodt, 1996, ''op. cit.'', p. 95.</ref> In 1998, Mixx Entertainment-[[TokyoPop]] issued US manga book versions of ''Sailor Moon'' and [[Clamp (manga artists)|CLAMP]]'s ''[[Magic Knight Rayearth]]''.<ref name="MSU">For the date and identification of the publisher as Mixx, see library records at http://www.lib.msu.edu/comics/rri/mrri/mixi.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> In 1996, Mixx Entertainment founded TokyoPop to publish manga in trade paperbacks and, like Viz, began aggressive marketing of manga to both young male and young female demographics.<ref name="Thompson2" /><ref name="MixxHist2">"Tangerine Dreams: Guide to Shoujo Manga and Anime" April 14, 2005. http://tangerine.astraldream.net/tokyopop.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
-== Vocabulaire spécifique ==
+In the following years, manga became increasingly popular, and new publishers entered the field while the established publishers greatly expanded their catalogues.<ref> Schodt, 1996, ''op. cit.'', pp. 308-319.</ref> As of December 2007, at least 15 US manga publishers have released some 1300-1400 titles.<ref name="Nmanga">The 1300-1400 number is an actual count from two different sources on the web. One is the web manga vendor Anime Castle, which, by actual count, lists 1315 different manga graphic novel titles (a "title" may have multiple volumes, like the 28 volumes of ''[[Lone Wolf and Cub]]'').(http://www.animecastle.com/c-18291-graphic-novels-manga.aspx) This list contains some Korean manga and some OEL manga. The second source is Anime News Network, which lists manga publishers plus titles they have published. The total for US manga publishers comes to 1290 by actual count, including some Korean and OEL manga.(http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/company.php) Anime Castle lists another 91 adult graphic novel manga titles.(http://www.animecastle.com/c-18307-mature-adult-Graphic-novels.aspx) Websites accessed December 16-17, 2007.</ref> Simultaneously, mainstream US media began to discuss manga, with articles in the New York Times,<ref name="Glazer">Glazer, Sarah. 2005. "Manga for Girls." ''The New York Times'', September 18. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/18/books/review/18glazer.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Time Magazine,<ref name="Coco">Masters, Coco. 2006. "America is Drawn to Manga." ''Time Magazine'', Thursday, Aug. 10.</ref> the Wall Street Journal,<ref name="WSJ">Bosker, Bianca. 2007. "Manga Mania." Wall Street Journal, Aug. 31. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118851157811713921.html?mod=googlenews_wsj Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Wired Magazine.<ref name="wired" /> As of the end of 2007, manga is a major component of the US comics market.
-* [[Bishōnen]] ({{lang|ja|美少年}}) : joli garçon, presque androgyne.
+===Europe and the UK===
-* [[Bishōjo]] ({{lang|ja|美少女}}) : jolie fille.
+The influence of manga on European cartooning is somewhat different than US experience. French art has borrowed from Japan since the 19th century ([[Japonisme]]<ref name="Japonisme">Berger, Klaus. 1992. ''Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521373212</ref>), and has its own highly developed tradition of [[bande dessinée]] cartooning.<ref name="BD">http://www.bande-dessinee.org/ Accessed 2007-12-19</ref> In France, imported manga has easily been assimilated into high art traditions. For example, Volumes 6 and 7 of [[Yu Aida]]'s ''[[Gunslinger Girl]]'' center on a cyborg girl, a former ballet dancer named Petruchka. The Asuka edition of Volume 7 contains an essay about the ballet ''Petruchka'' by Russian composer [[Igor Stravinsky]] and first performed in Paris in 1911.<ref>Massé, Rodolphe. 2006. "La musique dans Gunslinger Girl." In ''Gunslinger Girl'', Volume 7, pp. 178-179. Paris: Asuka Éditions.</ref> However, Francophone readership of manga is not limited to an artistic elite. Instead, beginning in the mid-1990s,<ref name="mahousu">http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> manga has proven very popular to a wide readership, accounting for about one-third of comics sales in France since 2004.<ref name="mahousu"><ref name="mangaFr">http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2004-02-04/manga-mania-in-france Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="cafe1">http://www.cafebabel.com/en/dossierprintversion.asp?Id=362 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> European publishers marketing manga translated into French include Asuka,<ref name="Asuka">http://www.asuka.fr/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Casterman,<ref name="Cas">http://bd.casterman.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Kana,<ref name="Kana1">Kana is an imprint of Dargaud-Lombard. http://www.mangakana.com/main.cfm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Kana2">http://www.mangakana.com/Univers.Series.cfm?Main=1 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Pika,<ref name="Pika">http://www.pika.fr/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> among others.<ref name="mahousu" /><ref name="CaList"> http://www.protoculture.ca/Catalog/mangaf.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> European publishers also translate manga into German,<ref name="Carlsen">http://www.carlsen.de/web/manga/index Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Egmont">http://www.manganet.de/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Italian,<ref name="Panini">Planet Manga, an imprint of Panini; http://www.paninicomics.it/Titolo.jsp Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Star">http://www.starcomics.com/uscite.php?tipo=manga Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Spanish,<ref name="DeAgo">http://www.planetadeagostinicomics.com/manga.asp Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Pon">http://www.ponentmon.com/new_pages/english/princ.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Dutch,<ref name="Holland1">Wolf, T. 2006 (March 8). "Anime and Manga players in the Dutch market." http://dutch-anime-manga.blogspot.com/2006/03/anime-and-manga-players-in-dutch.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and other languages.<ref name="Danish">For example, Danish: http://www.mangismo.com/dk/default.asp?page=serier Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Manga publishers based in the United Kingdom include Orionbooks/Gollancz<ref name="OB">http://www.orionbooks.co.uk/browse-list-Manga/Manga-Books-and-Authors.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Titan Books.<ref name="Titan1">http://forums.animeuknews.net/viewtopic.php?t=6282 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Titan2">http://www.uksfbooknews.net/2007/03/28/new-manga-range-from-titan-books-launching-in-april/print/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> US manga publishers have a strong marketing presence in the UK, e.g., the Tanoshimi line from Random House.<ref name="Tano">http://www.randomhouse.co.uk/tanoshimi/catalogue.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
-* [[Cosplay]] : Le terme "CosPlay" vient d'une contraction entre deux mots qui sont "Costume" et "Play", qui est une pratique visant à se déguiser en personnage célèbre de ''manga'', de jeu vidéo ou tout simplement en star japonaise. Les « cosplayers » se rencontrent fréquemment et reconstituent les scènes mythiques associées à leur personnage.
-* [[Dōjinshi]] ({{lang|ja|同人誌}}) : production amateur, souvent parodique .
-* [[Fanfiction|Fan fiction]] : littéralement « histoire écrite par un fan » ; récit à but non lucratif reprenant le monde d'un ''manga'' (ou plus largement d'un jeu vidéo, d'un livre...), dans lequel l'auteur y fait évoluer les personnages à son gré.
-* [[Lemon]] : ''Fan fiction'' (récit écrit) à caractère érotique ou pornographique mettant en scène des personnages du monde du ''manga'', de la Japanimation ou des jeux vidéo
-* [[Lime]] : ''Fan fiction'' (récit écrit) romantique avec des scènes érotiques simplement suggéré et mettant en scène des personnages du monde du ''manga'', de la Japanimation ou des jeux vidéo.
-* [[Mangaka]] ({{lang|ja|漫画家}}) : un dessinateur de ''manga''.
-* [[Mecha]] (ou ''meka'') ({{lang|ja|メカ}}) : Utilisé tres souvent pour les mangas et/ou animes sur les robots ou armures de combat revêtues par les personnages. Le terme vient du mot anglo-saxon "mechanic" traduit littéralement par "mécanique". Exemple: les séries ''[[Gundam|Mobile Suit Gundam]]''.
-* [[Otaku]] ({{lang|ja|お宅}}, {{lang|ja|おたく}}, {{lang|ja|オタク}}) : si, en Occident, ce terme désigne de manière générale un passionné de ''manga'', au Japon il a une signification différente et péjorative. Il désigne une personne tellement passionnée par un sujet (une série TV, des maquettes, une chanteuse...) qu'il finit par se couper du monde réel en s'enfermant dans un monde intérieur
-* [[Yonkoma]] ({{lang|ja|4コマ漫画}}, {{lang|ja|4コマ}}) : [[bande dessinée]] en quatre cases étagées, le plus souvent humoristique.
-== Produits dérivés ==
+==Aesthetic influences on cartooning in the US and France==
+A number of US artists have drawn comics and cartoons influenced by manga. An early example was [[Vernon Grant]], who drew manga-influenced comics while living in Japan in the late 1960s-early 1970s.<ref name="Grant">Stewart, Bhob. "Screaming Metal," ''The Comics Journal'', no. 94, October, 1984.</ref> Others include [[Frank Miller]]'s mid-1980s ''Ronin'',<ref name="Ronin"> http://www.grovel.org.uk/ronin/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> [[William Warren]] and [[Toren Smith]]'s 1988 ''[[The Dirty Pair]]'',<ref name="DirtyPair">http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/the-dirty-pair/run-from-the-future Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> [[Ben Dunn]]'s 1993 ''[[Ninja High School]]'',<ref name="Dunn1">http://bendunnmangaartist.100megs24.com/index.php?id=home&content=nhs/nhs Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Dunn2>http://www.atomicavenue.com/atomic/TitleDetail.aspx?TitleID=177 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> [[Stan Sakai]]'s 1984 ''[[Usagi Yojimbo]]'',<ref name="Uyo">http://www.usagiyojimbo.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and ''[[Manga Shi 2000]]'' from Crusade Comics (1997).<ref name="MangaShi1"> Mishkin, Orfalas, and Asencio 1997 "Manga Shi 2000." Rego Park, NY: Crusade Comics. The artists are not further identified.</ref><ref name="MangaShi2"> http://www.crusadefinearts.com/news/20051130definitiveshi.php. The artwork is attributed to William Tucci. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
-Souvent, les séries à succès sont adaptées en ''[[anime]]''. Mais parfois, ce sont les ''[[anime]]'' qui sont utilisés pour créer des bandes dessinées, soit simplement inspirées de la version animée (comme c'est le cas pour ''[[Evangelion]]''), soit directement copiées à partir des images animées. Pour cela, on met en page des images extraites de l'œuvre souhaitée, sur lesquelles on ajoute du dialogue. Ces bandes dessinées particulières sont alors appelées ''[[animekomikkusu]]'' (''Anime comics'').
+By the 21st Century, several US manga publishers began to produce work by US artists under the broad marketing label of manga.<ref name="Tai">Tai, Elizabeth. September 23, 2007. "Manga outside Japan." http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2007/9/23/lifebookshelf/18898783&sec=lifebookshelf Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> In 2002, I.C. Entertainment, formerly [[Studio Ironcat]] and now out of business, launched a series of manga by US artists called ''[[Amerimanga]]''.<ref name="Amerimanga">Anime News Network. November 11, 2002. "I.C. Entertainment (formerly Ironcat) to launch anthology of Manga by American artists". http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2002-11-27/i.c-promotes-amerimanga Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Seven Seas Entertainment followed suit with ''[[World Manga]]''.<ref name=SSE1>Anime News Network. May 10, 2006. "Correction: World Manga". http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-10/correction-world-manga. Seven Seas claimed to have coined the term in 2004; Forbes, Jake. (No date). "What is World Manga?" http://www.gomanga.com/news/features_gomanga_002.php Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Simultaneously, TokyoPop introduced ''[[original English-language manga]]'' (OEL manga) later renamed ''Global Manga''.<ref name TPopOEL">Anime News Network. May 5, 2006. "Tokyopop To Move Away from OEL and World Manga Labels." http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-05/tokyopop-to-move-away-from-oel-and-world-manga-labels. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="GravettOEL">Gravett, Paul. 2006. "ORIGINAL MANGA: MANGA NOT 'MADE IN JAPAN'." http://www.paulgravett.com/articles/092_originalmanga/092_originalmanga.htm. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> TokyoPop is currently the largest US publisher of original English language manga.<ref name="Kiley">ICv2. September 7, 2007. Interview with Tokyopop's Mike Kiley, http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11249.html (part1), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11250.html (part2), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11251.html (part3). Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Robofish">Robofish. (no date). "Manga, American-style." http://www.tokyopop.com/Robofish/insidetp/688417.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Reid">Reid, Calvin. March 28, 2006. HarperCollins, "Tokyopop Ink Manga Deal." http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6319467.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
-Associés aux ''manga'', on trouve les ''[[artbook]]s'', recueils d'illustrations en couleur et d'images originales, incluant parfois des histoires courtes.
+Francophone artists have also developed their own versions of manga, like [[Frédéric Boilet]]'s ''[[la nouvelle manga]]''.<ref name="Boilet">http://www.boilet.net/yukiko/yukiko.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Boilet has worked in France and in Japan, sometimes collaborating with Japanese artists.<ref name="Boilet1">Boilet, Frédéric. 2001. "Yukiko's Spinach." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933-0934-6.</ref><ref name="Boilet2">Boilet, Frédéric and Kan Takahama. 2004. "Mariko Parade." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933409-1-X.</ref> A Francophone Canadian example is the Montréal, Québec based artists' group ''[[MUSEBasement]]'', which draws manga-style artwork.<ref name="Prevost">http://www.musebasement.com/about.php Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
-De même, du fait de la popularité grandissante des ''manga'', les produits dérivés sont de plus en plus nombreux : figurines, cahiers, calendriers, porte-clés, peluches, habits, costumes, accessoires, etc.
-En France, de nombreux festivals appelés [[convention (manga)|conventions]] ont fait leur apparition ces dernières années. Ces conventions sont des points de rassemblement pour les fans de ''manga'' ou de culture japonaise moderne en général, proposant des projections, des jeux, des spectacles de [[cosplay]] et souvent complétées par un espace où se côtoient professionnels (magasins de livres et autres produits) et amateurs (clubs et associations exposant leurs propres œuvres).
+==International Manga Award==
+In May 2007, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced an international prize for manga of non-Japanese origin. The prize was awarded in late June 2007, with Hong Kong artist Lee Chi Ching winning first place. Runner ups were artists from Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Australia.<ref name=IntlAward1>http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2007-05-22/international-manga-award Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="IntlAward">http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2007/6/1174276_828.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
-On compte parmi les conventions les plus connues: [[Cartooniste|Cartoonist]], [[Convention de l'animation de l'EPITA|Epitanime]], [[Japan Expo]], [[Tokyo Zone]] (France), [[Polymanga]] (Suisse)...
+== See also ==
+* [[Anime]]
+* [[Dōjinshi]]
+* [[Hentai]]
+* [[Japanese popular culture]]
+* [[La nouvelle manga]]
+* [[Lianhuanhua]]
+* [[List of films based on manga]]
+* [[List of licensed manga in English]]
+* [[List of manga distributors]]
+* [[List of manga magazines]]
+* [[List of mangaka]]
+* [[Mangaka]]
+* [[Manga iconography]]
+* [[Manga outside Japan]]
+* [[Manhua]] (Chinese comics)
+* [[Manhwa]] (Korean comics)
+* [[Nerima, Tokyo#Anime and manga|Nerima, Tokyo]]
+* [[Oekaki]]
+* [[Omake]]
+* [[Original English-language manga]]
+* [[Otaku]]
+* [[Scanlation]] (fan scanned and translated manga)
-== Genre et nombre du mot «&nbsp;manga&nbsp;» ==
+== References ==
-Les mots japonais n'ont pas de [[genre grammatical]] ; par conséquent il est possible de dire ''un'' ou ''une'' ''manga''. L'auteur [[Frédéric Boilet]] a échauffé les esprits de beaucoup de fans habitués à accorder le mot au masculin, en parlant de ''manga'' au féminin (notamment dans le cadre de son mouvement franco-japonais ''[[La Nouvelle Manga]]''). Ses arguments ne peuvent pas être totalement rejetés. Le fait est que [[Jules de Goncourt|Jules]] et [[Edmond de Goncourt]], en parlant pour la première fois en France de ''manga'', à la fin du {{XIXe siècle}}, l'ont fait en accordant le mot au féminin. Depuis cette époque, ''manga'' était souvent employé au féminin, et ce jusqu'à la popularisation récente de l'usage au masculin (dans les années 1990 par les premiers journaux spécialisés et la télévision). Un deuxième argument pourrait être que la locution équivalente en français, bande dessinée, est déjà de genre féminin.
+{{Reflist|2}}
-À l'heure actuelle, on peut toutefois noter que c'est le genre masculin qui prédomine très largement.
+{{commonscat}}
-Le second problème concerne l'accord au [[Nombre grammatical|pluriel]] : conformément à la réforme de l'orthographe adoptée en 1991, ''«&nbsp;Les mots empruntés forment leur pluriel de la même manière que les mots français et sont accentués conformément aux règles qui s'appliquent aux mots français.&nbsp;»''<ref>[http://www.orthographe-recommandee.info Site officiel de l'orthographe recommandée]</ref>. Cependant, cette réforme n'étant toujours pas obligatoire, l'ancienne règle d'utilisation des pluriels dans leur forme originelle persiste. Ainsi, on peut rencontrer '''des manga''' aussi bien que '''des mangas''', les deux orthographes étant correctes.
+<!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================-->
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-== Voir aussi ==
+<!-- See Discussion for more details: Do Not Add Links -->
-=== Documentation ===
-* Collectif, ''AnimeLand'' hors-série n°5 : ''Le petit monde de la japanim et du manga'', Anime Manga Presse, 2003
-* Collectif, ''Guide du manga - France : Des origines à 2004'', Édition du Camphrier, 2004
-* Collectif, ''Guide Phénix du Manga'', Asuka, 2005
-* Bob Flash, « La Bande dessinée japonaise en France avant ''Akira'' », dans ''Mangazone''n°3, 1991
-* [[Paul Gravett]], ''Manga : Soixante Ans de BD Japonaises'', Édition du Rocher, 2005
-* [[Thierry Groensteen]], ''L'univers des mangas : une introduction à la bande dessinée japonaise'', Casterman, 1991
-=== Articles connexes ===
+{{Comics region}}
-{{Autres projets
-|commons=Category:Manga
-|wikt=Manga}}
-{{wikilivres|Manga|Manga}}
-* [[Anime]] (dessins-animés)
-* [[Bandes dessinées de science-fiction par ordre alphabétique]]
-* [[Gashapon]]
-* [[Liste de mangakas]]
-* [[Manga café]]
-* [[Mangaka]]
-* [[Manfra]] (courant francophone de BD de style ''manga'')
-* [[Manhua]]
-* [[Manhwa]]
-* [[Scanlation]]
-=== Liens externes ===
+[[Category:Artists' books]]
-<!-- PAS DE LIENS VERS DES ÉLÉMENTS NON LÉGAUX (scantrad et fansub notamment) NI DE SITES PERSONNELS OU DE PUBLICITE - CECI EST UNE ENCYCLOPEDIE, PAS UN ANNUAIRE -->
+[[Category:Fiction]]
-*{{fr}} [http://www.dmoz.org/World/Fran%c3%a7ais/Arts/Bande_dessin%c3%a9e/Mangas/ Catégorie Mangas] de l'annuaire [[Open Directory Project|dmoz]].
+[[Category:Japanese words and phrases]]
-*{{fr}} [http://www.arte-tv.com/mangarte Le magazine web d'Arte consacré aux manga.]
+[[Category:Manga| ]]
+[[Category:Young adult fiction]]
-== Notes et références de l'article ==
-{{reflist}}
-{{Portail Animation et bande dessinée asiatiques}}
-{{Lien AdQ|ast}}
-{{Lien BA|de}}
-{{Lien AdQ|es}}
-[[Catégorie:Manga|*]]
+{{Link FA|ast}}
+{{Link FA|de}}
+{{Link FA|es}}
 [[ar:مانغا (مجلة)]]
 [[ast:Manga]]
 [[be-x-old:Манґа]]
+[[br:Manga]]
 [[bg:Манга]]
-[[bpy:মাঙ্গা]]
-[[br:Manga]]
 [[ca:Manga]]
 [[cs:Manga]]
 [[da:Manga]]
 [[de:Manga]]
+[[et:Manga]]
 [[el:Manga]]
-[[en:Manga]]
+[[es:Manga]]
 [[eo:Mangao]]
-[[es:Manga]]
-[[et:Manga]]
 [[eu:Manga]]
 [[fa:مانگا]]
-[[fi:Manga]]
+[[fr:Manga]]
 [[gl:Manga]]
-[[he:מאנגה]]
+[[ko:일본 만화]]
 [[hr:Manga]]
-[[hu:Manga]]
+[[bpy:মাঙ্গা]]
 [[id:Manga]]
 [[is:Manga]]
 [[it:Manga]]
-[[ja:日本の漫画]]
+[[he:מאנגה]]
-[[ko:일본 만화]]
 [[la:Manga]]
+[[lv:Manga]]
 [[lb:Manga]]
 [[lt:Manga]]
-[[lv:Manga]]
+[[hu:Manga]]
 [[ms:Manga]]
+[[nl:Manga (strip)]]
+[[ja:日本の漫画]]
 [[nap:Manga]]
-[[nl:Manga (strip)]]
 [[no:Manga]]
 [[oc:Manga]]
 [[ro:Manga]]
 [[ru:Манга]]
+[[sq:Manga]]
 [[simple:Manga]]
 [[sk:Manga]]
 [[sl:Manga]]
-[[sq:Manga]]
 [[sr:Manga]]
+[[fi:Manga]]
 [[sv:Manga]]
 [[ta:மங்கா]]
 [[tr:Manga (çizgi roman)]]
 [[uk:Манґа]]
+[[vi:Manga]]
 [[zh:日本漫画]]