Manga
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Modèle:Nihongo Modèle:Audio is the Japanese word for comics (sometimes called komikku コミック) and print cartoons.<ref name="Lent">Lent, John A. 2001. "Introduction." In John A. Lent, editor. Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 3-4. ISBN 0-8248-2471-7.</ref><ref name = "Gravett">Gravett, Paul. 2004. "Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics." NY: Harper Design. ISBN 1-85669-391-0. p. 8.</ref><ref> Characteristics of Japanese Manga
. dnp.co.jp
. Retrieved on 2007-09-18. </ref> In their modern form, manga date from shortly after World War II<ref name="Kinsella">« »</ref> but have a long, complex history in earlier Japanese art.<ref name="Kern">« »</ref><ref name="Ito">« »</ref><ref name="Schodt 1986">Schodt, Frederik L. (1986). "Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics." Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 978-0870117527.</ref> In Japan, manga are widely read by people of all ages,<ref name = "Gravett"/> so that a broad range of subjects and topics occur in manga, including action-adventure, romance, sports and games, historical drama, comedy, science fiction and fantasy, mystery, horror, sexuality, and business and commerce, among others.<ref name="Gravett" /> Since the 1950s, manga have steadily become a major part of the Japanese publishing industry,<ref name="Kinsella" /><ref name="Schodt 1996">Schodt, Frederik L. (1996). "Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga." Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1880656235.</ref> representing a 481 billion yen market in Japan in 2006<ref name="ComiPress"> 2006 Japanese Manga Market Drops Below 500 Billion Yen
. ComiPress (2007-03-10)
. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref> (approximately $4.4 billion dollars).<ref> 500 billion yen in dollars
. Google (2007-09-14)
. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref> Manga have also become increasingly popular worldwide.<ref name="Wong 2006">« »</ref><ref name="Patten">Patten, Fred. 2004. Watching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1880656921.</ref> In 2006, the United States manga market was $175-200 million.<ref name="Cha"> Cha , Kai-Ming
(2007-04-03) . Viz Media and Manga in the U.S . Publishers Weekly
. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref>
Manga are typically printed in black-and-white,<ref>Katzenstein, Peter. J. & Takashi Shiraishi 1997. Network Power: Japan in Asia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801483738. http://books.google.com/books?id=-Fc8J60XGZAC&pg=PA249&lpg=PA249&dq=manga+typically+black+white&source=web&ots=uMDXzjpj_b&sig=IDoYmSGrGHeleX-XRqsHQmKDUgU}}</ref> although some full-color manga exist (e.g. Colorful).<ref>« »</ref> In Japan, manga are usually serialized in telephone book-size manga magazines, often containing many stories each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> If the series is successful, collected chapters may be republished in paperback books called tankōbon.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> A manga artist (mangaka in Japanese) typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company.<ref name="Kinsella" /> If a manga series is popular enough, it may be animated after or even during its run.<ref>« »</ref> Although sometimes manga are drawn centering on previously existing live-action or animated films.<ref> Johnston-O'Neill , Tom
(08/03/2007) . Finding the International in Comic Con International . The San Diego Participant Observer
. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. </ref><ref> Brienza , Casey
(July 13, 2007) . Videogame Visions Udon's 'Street Fighter' titles join game-based manga scene . Wizard
. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. </ref> (e.g. Star Wars).<ref>Modèle:Cite comic</ref>
Manga as a term outside of Japan refers specifically to comics originally published in Japan.<ref name="Merriam-Webster"> Definition of manga
. Merriam-Webster Online
.</ref> However, manga and manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in other parts of the world, particularly in Korea ("manhwa")<ref> Manhwa: 만화
. Anime News Network
. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref> and in the People's Republic of China, including Hong Kong ("manhua").<ref name="Wong 2002">« »</ref> In France, "la nouvelle manga" is a form of bande dessinée drawn in styles influenced by Japanese manga.<ref>« »</ref> In the U.S., manga-like comics are called Amerimanga, world manga, or original English-language manga (OEL manga).<ref> World Manga
. Anime News Network
. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. </ref>
The Kyoto International Manga Museum maintains a very large website listing manga published in Japanese.<ref name="KyMM">http://www.kyotomm.com/english/about_5.html</ref>
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Etymology
Manga, literally translated, means "whimsical pictures". The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden's picturebook "Shiji no yukikai" (179Image:Cool.gif, and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's "Manga hyakujo" (1814) and the celebrated Hokusai manga containing assorted drawings from the sketchbook of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai. The first user of the word "manga" as its modern usage is Rakuten Kitazawa.<ref name="Manga no Jiten">Isao Shimizu, Nihon Manga no Jiten p53-54 p102-103, ISBN 4-385-15586-0</ref>
History and characteristics
Overview of ideas
Historians and writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in the relative importance they attribute to the role of cultural and historical events following World War II versus the role of pre-War, Meiji, and pre-Meiji Japanese culture and art.
The first view emphasizes events occurring during and after the U.S. Occupation of Japan (1945-1952), and stresses that manga was strongly shaped by United States cultural influences, including U.S. comics brought to Japan by the GIs and by images and themes from U.S. television, film, and cartoons (especially Disney).<ref name="Kinsella" /><ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Kinsella also sees a central role for how the booming post-war Japanese publishing industry helped create a consumer-oriented society in which publishing giants like Kodansha could shape popular taste.<ref name="Kinsella" />
Japanese writers like Takashi Murakami have also stressed events after WWII, but Murakami sees Japan's staggering defeat and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as having created long-lasting scars on the Japanese artistic psyche, which, in this view, lost its previously virile confidence in itself and sought solace in harmless and cute ("kawaii") images.<ref name="Murakami">« »</ref> However, Takayumi Tatsumi sees a special role for a transpacific economic and cultural transnationalism that created a postmodern and shared international youth culture of cartooning, film, television, music, and related popular arts, which was, for Tatsumi the crucible in which modern manga have developed.<ref name="Tatsumi">« »</ref>
For Murakami and Tatsumi, transnationalism (or globalization) refers specifically to the flow of cultural and subcultural material from one nation to another.<ref name="Murakami" /><ref name="Tatsumi" /> In their usage, the term does not refer to international corporate expansion, nor to international tourism, nor to cross-border international personal friendships, but to ways in which artistic, aesthetic, and intellectual traditions influence each other across national boundaries.<ref name="Murakami" /><ref name="Tatsumi" /> An example of cultural transnationalism is the creation of Star Wars films in the United States, their transformation into manga by Japanese artists, and the marketing of Star Wars manga to the United States.<ref> Phantom Goes Manga
. StarWars.com (January 05, 2000)
. Retrieved on 2007-09-18. </ref> Another example is the transfer of hip-hop culture from the United States to Japan.<ref name="Condry">« »</ref> Wong also sees a major role for transnationalism in the recent history of manga.<ref name="Wong 2006" />
However, other writers stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions as central to the history of manga. They include Frederik L. Schodt,<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Schodt 1996" /> Kinko Ito,<ref name="Ito 2000">« »</ref> and Adam L. Kern.<ref name ="Kern 2006">Kern, Adam (2006). Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyoshi of Edo Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN-10: 0674022661.</ref><ref name="Kern 2007">« »</ref>
Schodt points to the existence in the 1200s of illustrated picture scrolls like the Tobae scrolls that told stories in sequential images with humor and wit.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Schodt also stresses continuities of aesthetic style and vision between ukiyo-e and shunga woodblock prints and modern manga (all three fulfill Eisner's criteria<ref name="Eisner">« »</ref> for sequential art). Schodt also sees a particularly significant role for kamishibai, a form of street theater where itinerant artists displayed pictures in a light box while narrating the story to audiences in the street.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Torrance has pointed to similarities between modern manga and the Osaka popular novel between the 1890s and 1940, and argues that the development of widespread literacy in Meiji and post-Meiji Japan helped create audiences for stories told in words and pictures.<ref name="Torrance">« »</ref>
Kinko Ito also roots manga historically in aesthetic continuity with pre-Meiji art, but she sees its post-World War II history as driven in part by consumer enthusiasm for the rich imagery and narrative of the newly developing manga tradition. Ito describes how this tradition has steadily produced new genres and markets, e.g., for girls' (shōjo) manga in the late 1960s and for Ladies Comics (redisu) in the 1980s.<ref name="Ito 2000" />
Kern has suggested that kibyoshi, illustrated picture books from the late 1700s, may have been the world's first comic books.<ref name ="Kern 2006" /> These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.<ref name ="Kern 2006" /> Although Kern does not believe that kibyoshi were a direct forerunner of manga, nonetheless, for Kern the existence of kibyoshi points to a Japanese willingness to mix words and pictures in a popular story-telling medium.<ref name="Kern 2007" /> The first recorded use of the term "manga" to mean "whimsical or impromptu pictures" comes from this tradition in 1798, which, Kern points out, predates Katsushika Hokusai's better known later usage by several decades (Kern, 2006, pp. 139-144; Figure 3.3).<ref name ="Kern 2006" />
Similarly, Inoue sees manga as being a mixture of image- and word-centered elements, each pre-dating the U.S.A. occupation of Japan. In his view, Japanese image-centered or "pictocentric" art ultimately derives from Japan's long history of engagement with Chinese graphic art, whereas word-centered or "logocentric" art, like the novel, was stimulated by social and economic needs of Meiji and pre-War Japanese nationalism for a populace unified by a common written language. Both fuse in what Inoue sees as a symbiosis in manga.<ref name="Inoue">« »</ref>
Thus, these scholars see the history of manga as involving historical continuities and discontinuities between the aesthetic and cultural past as it interacts with post-World War II innovation and transnationalism.
After World War II
Modern manga originates in the Occupation (1945-1952) and post-Occupation years (1952-early 1960s), when a previously militaristic and ultranationalist Japan was rebuilding its political and economic infrastructure.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref>This section draws primarily on the work of Frederik Schodt (1986, 1996, 2007) and of Paul Gravett (2004). Time-lines for manga history are available in Mechademia, Gravett, and in articles by Go Tchiei 1998a.</ref> Although U.S. Occupation censorship policies specifically targeted art and writing that glorified war and Japanese militarism,<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> those policies did not prevent the publication of other kinds of material, including manga. Furthermore, the 1947 Japanese Constitution (Article 21) prohibited all forms of censorship.<ref name="Kodansha">« »</ref> One result was an explosion of artistic creativity in this period.<ref name="Schodt 1986" />
In the forefront of this period are two manga series and characters that influenced much of the future history of manga. These are Osamu Tezuka's Mighty Atom (Astro Boy in the United States; begun in 1951) and Machiko Hasegawa's Sazae-san (begun in 1946).
Astro Boy was both a superpowered robot and a naive little boy.<ref name="Schodt 2007">« »</ref> Tezuka never explained why Astro Boy had such a highly developed social conscience nor what kind of robot programming could make him so deeply affiliative.<ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Both seem innate to Astro Boy, and represent a Japanese sociality and community-oriented masculinity differing very much from the Emperor-worship and militaristic obedience enforced during the previous period of Japanese imperialism.<ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Astro Boy quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere as an icon and hero of a new world of peace and the renunciation of war, as also seen in Article 9 of the Japanese constitution.<ref name="Kodansha" /><ref name="Schodt 2007" /> Similar themes occur in Tezuka's New World and Metropolis.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Schodt 2007" />
By contrast, Sazae-san (meaning "Ms. Sazae") was drawn starting in 1946 by Machiko Hasegawa, a young woman artist who made her heroine a stand-in for millions of Japanese men and especially women rendered homeless by the war.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> Sazae-san does not face an easy or simple life, but, like Astro Boy, she too is highly affiliative and is deeply involved with her immediate and extended family. She is also a very strong character, in striking contrast to the officially sanctioned Neo-Confucianist principles of feminine meekness and obedience to the "good wife, wise mother" (ryōsai kenbo, りょうさいけんぼ; 良妻賢母) ideal taught by the previous military regime.<ref name="Uno">Uno, Kathleen S. 1993. "The death of 'Good Wife, Wise Mother'." In: Andrew Gordon (editor) Postwar Japan as History. Berkeley, CA: University of California. pp. 293-322. ISBN 0520074750. </ref><ref name="Ohinata">Ohinata, Masami 1995 "The mystique of motherhood: A key to understanding social change and family problems in Japan." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 199-211. ISBN 978-1558610941.</ref><ref name="Yoshizumi">Yoshizumi, Kyoko 1995 "Marriage and family: Past and present." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 183-197. ISBN 978-1558610941.</ref> Sazae-san faces the world with cheerful resilience,<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Lee 2000">Lee, William (2000). "From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0765605610.</ref> what Hayao Kawai calls a "woman of endurance."<ref name="Kawai">Kawai, Hayao. 1996. The Japanese Psyche: Major Motifs in the Fairy Tales of Japan. Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications. Chapter 7, pp. 125-142.</ref> Sazae-san sold more than 62 million copies over the next half century.<ref name="Schodt 1997">« »</ref>
Tezuka and Hasegawa were also both stylistic innovators. In Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Hasegawa's focus on daily life and on women's experience also came to characterize later shojo manga.<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Lee 2000" /><ref name="Sanchez"> Sanchez, Frank (1997-2003). "Hist 102: History of Manga." http://www.animeinfo.org/animeu/hist102.html. AnimeInfo. Retrieved on 2007-09-11.</ref>
Between 1950 and 1969, increasingly large audiences for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres, shōnen manga aimed at boys and shōjo manga aimed at girls.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Toku 2005">« »</ref> Up to 1969, shōjo manga was drawn primarily by adult men for young female readers.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Thorn 2001">« »</ref>
Two very popular and influential male-authored manga for girls from this period were Tezuka's 1953-1956 Ribon no Kishi (Princess Knight or Knight in Ribbons) and Matsuteru Yokoyama's 1966 Mahōtsukai Sarii (Little Witch Sally).<ref name="Schodt 1986" />
Ribon no Kishi dealt with the adventures of Princess Sapphire of a fantasy kingdom who had been born with male and female souls, and whose sword-swinging battles and romances blurred the boundaries of otherwise rigid gender roles.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /> Sarii, the pre-teen princess heroine of Mahōtsukai Sarii,<ref>Sarii is the Japanese spelling and pronunciation of the English-language name "Sally." The word mahōtsukai literally means "magic operator," someone who can use and control magic. It does not mean "witch" or "magical girl" (which is mahō shōjo in Japanese), because tsukai is not a gendered word in Japanese. This use of an English-language name with a Japanese descriptive word is an example of transnationalism in Tatsumi's sense.</ref> came from her home in the magical lands to live on Earth, go to school, and perform a variety of magical good deeds for her friends and schoolmates.<ref name="Yoshida">Modèle:Cite paper</ref> Yokoyama's Mahōtsukai Sarii was influenced by the U.S. TV sitcom Bewitched,<ref> Johnson , Melissa
(June 27, 2006) . Bewitched by Magical Girls . FPS Magazine
. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. </ref> but unlike Samantha, the main character of Bewitched, a married woman with her own daughter, Sarii is a pre-teenager who faces the problems of growing up and mastering the responsibilities of forthcoming adulthood. Mahōtsukai Sarii helped create the now very popular mahō shōjo or "magical girl" subgenre of later manga.<ref name="Yoshida" /> Both series were and still are very popular.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Yoshida" />
Shōjo manga
In 1969, a group of women mangaka later called the Year 24 Group (also known as Magnificent 24s) made their shōjo manga debut (year 24 comes from the Japanese name for 1949, when many of these artists were born).<ref>Gravett, 2004, op. cit., pp.78-80.</ref><ref>Lent, 2001, op. cit., pp. 9-10.</ref> The group included Hagio Moto, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Oshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Riyoko Yamagishi<ref name="Gravett" /> and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> Thereafter, shōjo manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Thorn 2001" />
In 1971, Ikeda began her immensely popular shōjo manga Berusaiyu no Bara (The Rose of Versailles), a story of Oscar François de Jarjayes, a cross-dressing woman who was a Captain in Marie Antoinette's Palace Guards in pre-Revolutionary France.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Tchiei"> Tchiei , Go
(1998) . Shojo Manga: A Unique Genre
. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. </ref> In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille. Likewise, Hagio Moto's work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women's roles and activities <ref name="Uno" /><ref name="Ohinata" /><ref name="Yoshizumi" /> as in her 1975 They Were Eleven, a shōjo science fiction story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.<ref>Hagio Moto 1975/1996 "They Were Eleven." In: Matt Thorn (editor) Four Shojo Stories. San Francisco: Viz Media. ISBN 1569310556. Original story published 1975; U.S. edition 1996.</ref>
These women artists also created considerable stylistic innovations. In its focus on the heroine's inner experiences and feelings, shōjo manga are "picture poems"<ref>Schodt, 1986, op. cit., p 88.</ref> with delicate and complex designs that often eliminate panel borders completely to create prolonged, non-narrative extensions of time.<ref name="Schodt 1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Thorn 2001" /><ref name="McCloud">McCloud, Scott. 1993. Understanding Comics. New York: Paradox Press. pp. 77-82.</ref> All of these innovations – strong and independent female characters, intense emotionality, and complex design – remain characteristic of shōjo manga up to the present day.<ref name="Sanchez" /><ref name="Tchiei" />
Shōjo manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to today
In the following decades (1975-present), shōjo manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres.<ref name="Ogi">Ōgi, Fusami 2004. "Female subjectivity and shōjo (girls) manga (Japanese comics): shōjo in Ladies' Comics and Young Ladies' Comics." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(4):780-803.</ref> Major subgenres have included romance, superheroines, and redisu / josei 女性 じょせい, whose boundaries are sometimes indistinguishable from each other and from shōnen manga.<ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Schodt 1996" />
In modern shōjo manga romance, love is a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self-realization.<ref name="Drazen">Drazen, Patrick 2003. Anime Explosion!: the What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge.</ref> Japanese manga/anime critic Eri Izawa defines romance as symbolizing "the emotional, the grand, the epic; the taste of heroism, fantastic adventure, and the melancholy; passionate love, personal struggle, and eternal longing" set into imaginative, individualistic, and passionate narrative frameworks.<ref name="Izawa">Izawa, Eri 2000 ."The romantic, passionate Japanese in anime: A look at the hidden Japanese soul." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 138-153. ISBN 978-0765605610. Accessed September 23, 2007.</ref>
These romances are sometimes long narratives that can deal with distinguishing between false and true love, coping with sexual intercourse, and growing up in a complex world, themes inherited by subsequent animated versions of the story.<ref name="Toku 2005" /><ref name="Drazen" /><ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p. 14.</ref> These "coming of age" or bildungsroman themes occur in both shōjo and shōnen manga.<ref name="fn1">"The transformation into a superhero is in fact an allegory of becoming an adult." From Graillat, Ludovic 2006-2007 "America vs. Japan: the Influence of American Comics on Manga." Refractory: A Journal of Entertainment Media, Volume 10. Accessed September 23, 2007. Literally, in German, bildungs = education and roman = novel, hence a novel about the education of the protagonist in "the ways of the world."</ref><ref name="Moretti">Moretti, Franco 1987. The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture. London: Verso. ISBN 1859842984.</ref>
In the bildungsroman, the protagonist must deal with adversity and conflict,<ref name="Moretti" /> and examples in shōjo manga of romantic conflict are common. They include Miwa Ueda's Peach Girl,<ref name="Peach1"> Beveridge , Chris
(05/14/2007) . Peach Girl Vol. #1 (also w/box) (of 6) . Anime on DVD
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref><ref name="Peach2"> Peach Girl Volume 1
. Tokyopop
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Fuyumi Soryo's Mars,<ref name="Mars"> MARS Volume 1
. Tokyopop
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and, for mature readers, Moyoco Anno's Happy Mania,<ref name="Thorn 2001" /><ref name="Mania"> Happy Mania Volume 1
. Tokyopop
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Yayoi Ogawa's Tramps Like Us,<ref name="Tramps"> Tramps Like Us (manga)
. Anime News Network
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Ai Yazawa's Nana.<ref name="Nana1"> Aoki , Deb
. Nana by Ai Yazawa - Series Profile and Story Summary . About.com
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref><ref name="Nana2"> Bertschy , Zac
(Dec 26 2005) . NANA G.novel 1 . Anime News Network
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> In another shōjo manga bildungsroman narrative device, the young heroine is transported to an alien place or time where she meets strangers and must survive on her own (including Hagio Moto's They Were Eleven,<ref name="Moto"> Randall , Bill
. Three By Moto Hagio . The Comics Journal
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Kyoko Hikawa's From Far Away,<ref name="Far"> King , Patrick
. From Far Away Vol. 2 . Anime Fringe
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Yû Watase's Fushigi Yûgi: The Mysterious Play,<ref name="Fushigi"> Fushigi Yugi (manga)
. Anime News Network
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Chiho Saito's The World Exists For Me).<ref name="World"> The World Exists for Me Volume 2
. Tokyopop
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>
Yet another such device involves meeting unusual or strange people and beings, for example, Natsuki Takaya's Fruits Basket<ref name="FB"> Fruits Basket Volume 1
. Tokyopop
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>—one of the most popular shōjo manga in the United States<ref name="ICV2"> "Top 50 Manga Properties for Spring 2007: Fruits Basket." ICv2 Guide to Manga, Number 45, pp. 6, 8.</ref>—whose orphaned heroine Tohru must survive living in the woods in a house filled with people who can transform into the animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Harako Iida's Crescent Moon, heroine Mahiru meets a group of supernatural beings, finally to discover that she herself too has a supernatural ancestry when she and a young tengu demon fall in love.<ref name="Cresc"> Crescent Moon Volume 1
. Tokyopop
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>
With the superheroines, shōjo manga continued to break away from neo-Confucianist norms of female meekness and obedience.<ref name="Schodt 1996" /><ref name="Toku 2005" /> Naoko Takeuchi's Sailor Moon (Bishōjo Senshi Seiramun: "Pretty Girl Soldier Sailor Moon") is a sustained, 18-volume narrative about a group of young heroines simultaneously heroic and introspective, active and emotional, dutiful and ambitious.<ref name="Allison">Allison, Anne 2000. "Sailor Moon: Japanese superheroes for global girls." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 259-278. ISBN 978-0765605610.</ref><ref name="Grigsby">Grigsby, Mary 1999 "The social production of gender as reflected in two Japanese culture industry products: Sailormoon and Crayon Shinchan." In: John A. Lent, editor Themes and Issues in Asian Cartooning: Cute, Cheap, Mad, and Sexy. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. pp. 183-210. ISBN 0879727802.</ref> The combination proved extremely successful, and Sailor Moon became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats.<ref name="Allison" /><ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p 92.</ref> Another example is CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth, whose three young heroines, Hikaru, Umi, and Fuu, are magically transported to the world of Cephiro to become armed magical warriors in the service of saving Cephiro from internal and external enemies.<ref name="MKR1"> Magic Knight Rayearth (manga)
. Anime News Network
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref><ref name="MKR2"> Magic Knight Rayearth I Volume 1
. Tokyopop
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>
The superheroine subgenre also extensively developed the notion of teams (sentai) of girls working together,<ref name="Poitras">Poitras, Gilles 2001. Anime Essentials: Everything a Fan Needs to Know. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge. ISBN 1880656531.</ref> like the Sailor Senshi in Sailor Moon, the Magic Knights in Magic Knight Rayearth, and the Mew Mew girls from Mia Ikumi's Tokyo Mew Mew.<ref name="Mew"> Tokyo Mew Mew Volume 1
. Tokyopop
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> By today, the superheroine narrative template has been widely used and parodied within the shōjo manga tradition (e.g., Nao Yazawa's Wedding Peach<ref name="Wedding"> Wedding Peach
. Viz Media
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Hyper Rune by Tamayo Akiyama<ref name="Rune"> Cooper , Liann
(November 20 2004) . RIGHT TURN ONLY!! Sugar Rush . Anime News Network
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>) and outside that tradition, e.g., in bishōjo comedies like Kanan's Galaxy Angel.<ref name="Gal"> Galaxy Angel
. Broccoli Books
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref>
In the mid-1980s and thereafter, as girls who had read shōjo manga as teenagers matured and entered the job market, shōjo manga elaborated subgenres directed at women in their 20s and 30s.<ref name="Ogi" /> This "Ladies Comic" subgenre (in Japanese, redisu レディース, redikomi レヂィーコミ, and josei) has dealt with themes of young adulthood: jobs, the emotions and problems of sexual intercourse, and friendships or love among women.<ref name="Ogi" /><ref name="Ito1">Ito, Kinko 2002. "The world of Japanese 'Ladies Comics': From romantic fantasy to lustful perversion." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(1):68-85.</ref><ref name="Ito2">Ito, Kinko 2003. "Japanese Ladies' Comics as agents of socialization: The lessons they teach." International Journal of Comic Art, 5(2):425-436.</ref><ref name="Jones">Jones, Gretchen 2002. "'Ladies' Comics': Japan's not-so-underground market in pornography for women." U.S.-Japan Women's Journal (English Supplement), Number 22, pp. 3-31.</ref><ref name="Shamoon">Shamoon, Deborah 2004. "Office slut and rebel flowers: The pleasures of Japanese pornographic comics for women." In: Linda Williams (editor) Porn Studies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 77-103.</ref>
Redisu manga retains many of the narrative stylistics of shōjo manga but has been drawn by and written for adult women.<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp 124-129.</ref> Redisu manga has been often, but not always, sexually explicit, but sexuality has characteristically been set into complex narratives of pleasure and erotic arousal combined with emotional risk.<ref name="Schodt 1996" /><ref name="Ito1" /><ref name="Ito2" /> Examples include Ramiya Ryo's Luminous Girls,<ref name="Ryo">Ramiya Ryo (no date) "Luminous Girls." Tokyo: France Shoin Comic House. ISBN 4829682019.</ref> Masako Watanabe's Kinpeibai<ref>Toku, 2005, op. cit., p. 59.</ref> and the work of Shungicu Uchida<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 173-177.</ref> Another subgenre of shōjo-redisu manga deals with emotional and sexual relationships among women (akogare and yuri),<ref name="Yuri"> Bando, Kishiji (no date) "Shoujo Yuri Manga Guide." Accessed September 23, 2007.</ref> in work by Erica Sakurazawa,<ref name="Sakurazawa"> Font , Dillon
. Erica Sakurazawa's Nothing But Loving You . Anime Fringe
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Ebine Yamaji,<ref name="Yamaji"> Fan translations of Ebine Yamaji's yuri mangas
. The Gay Comics List
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Chiho Saito.<ref name="PCUtena"> Perper, Timothy & Martha Cornog 2006. "In the Sound of the Bells: Freedom and Revolution in Revolutionary Girl Utena." Mechademia, An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:183-186.</ref> Other subgenres of shōjo-redisu manga have also developed, e.g., fashion (oshare) manga, like Ai Yazawa's Paradise Kiss<ref name="Masanao">Masanao, Amano 2004. Manga Design. Koln, Germany: Taschen GMBH. pp. 526-529. ISBN 3822825913.</ref><ref name="PKiss"> Paradise Kiss Volume 1
. Tokyopop
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and horror-vampire-gothic manga, like Matsuri Hino's Vampire Knight,<ref> Vampire Knight by Matsuri Hino
. Shojo Beat
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> Kaori Yuki's Cain Saga,<ref name="Cain"> Kaori Yuki
. Shojo Beat
. Retrieved on 2007-09-26. </ref> and Mitsukazu Mihara's DOLL,<ref name="DOLL"> Doll Volume 1
. Tokyopop
. Retrieved on 2007-11-14. </ref> which interact with street fashions, costume play ("cosplay"), J-Pop music, and goth subcultures in complex ways.<ref name ="Fruits">Shoichi Aoki 2001 Fruits. New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0714840831.</ref><ref name="Winge">Winge, Theresa 2006. "Costuming the imagination: Origins of anime and manga cosplay." Mechademia: An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:65-76.</ref><ref name="Macias">Macias, Patrick, Evers, Izumi, and Nonaka, Kazumi (illustrator). 2004.Japanese Schoolgirl Inferno: Tokyo Teen Fashion Subculture Handbook. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books. ISBN 9780811856904.</ref>
By the start of the 21st century, manga for women and girls thus represented a broad spectrum of material for pre- and early teenagers to material for adult women.
Publications
In Japan, manga constitutes a 40.67 billion Yen (359 million USD) publication industry for 2007.<ref name="IndustrySize"> 2007年のオタク市場規模は1866億円―メディアクリエイトが白書
. Inside for Business (2007-12-18)
. Retrieved on 2007-12-18. </ref> On average many volumes of manga are printed annually. The manga industry expanded worldwide. Distribution companies license and reprint manga into their native languages.
When a series has been running for a while, the stories are usually collected together and printed in dedicated book-sized volumes, called tankōbon. These are the equivalent of U.S. comic's trade paperbacks. These volumes use higher-quality paper, and are useful to those who want to "catch up" with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive. Recently, "deluxe" versions have also been printed as readers have got older and the need for something special grew. Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 yen (about $1 U.S. dollar) each to compete with the used book market.
Manga are primarily classified by the age and gender of the target audience. In particular, books and magazines sold to boys (shōnen) and girls (shōjo) have distinctive cover art and are placed on different shelves in most bookstores. Due to cross-readership, consumer response is not limited by demographics. For example, male readers subscribing to a series intended for girls and so on.
Japan also has manga cafés, or manga kissa (kissa is an abbreviation of kissaten). At a manga kissa, people drink coffee and read manga, and sometimes stay there overnight.
Traditionally, manga are written from top to bottom and right to left, as this is the traditional reading pattern of the Japanese written language. Some publishers of translated manga keep this format, but other publishers flip the pages horizontally, changing the reading direction to left to right, so as not to confuse foreign audiences or traditional comics consumers. This practice is known as "flipping". For the most part, the criticisms suggest that flipping goes against the original intentions of the creator (for example, if a person wears a shirt that reads "MAY" on it, and gets flipped, then the word is altered to "YAM"). Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts, such as a car being depicted with gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right.
Magazines
Manga magazines usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20–40 pages allocated to each series per issue. These manga magazines, or "anthology magazines", as they are also known (colloquially "phone books"), are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages long. Manga magazines also contain one-shot comics and various four-panel yonkoma (equivalent to comic strips). Manga series can run for many years if they are successful. Manga artists sometimes start out with a few "one-shot" manga projects just to try to get their name out. If these are successful and receive good reviews, they are continued.
Some relatively well-known publications are:
Other magazines such as the anime magazine Newtype features single chapters within their monthly periodicals.
Dōjinshi
Some manga artists will produce extra, sometimes unrelated material, which are known as omake (lit. "bonus" or "extra"). They might also publish their unfinished drawings or sketches, known as oekaki (lit. "sketches"). Unofficial fan-made comics are also called dōjinshi. Some dōjinshi continue with a series' story or write an entirely new one using its characters, much like fan fiction. In 2007, doujinshi sold for 27.73 billion Yen (245 million USD).<ref name="IndustrySize" />
Dōjinshi is produced by small amateur publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market in a similar fashion to small-press independently published comic books in the United States. Comiket, the largest comic book convention in the world with over 400,000 gathering in 3 days, is devoted to dōjinshi.
Gekiga
Gekiga literally means "drama pictures" and refers to a form of aesthetic realism in manga.<ref name="SchodtG">Schodt, 1986, op. cit., pp. 68-73.</ref><ref name="GravettG">Gravett, 2004, op. cit., pp. 38-42.</ref> Gekiga style drawing is emotionally dark, often starkly realistic, sometimes very violent, and focuses on the day-in, day-out grim realities of life, often drawn in gritty and unpretty fashions.<ref name="SchodtG"/><ref name = "GravettGekiga"> Gravett , Paul
. Gekiga: The Flipside of Manga
. Retrieved on 2007-12-20. </ref> Gekiga arose in the late 1950s and 1960s partly from left-wing student and working class political activism<ref name="SchodtG"/><ref name="Isao">« »</ref> and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like Tatsumi Yoshihiro with existing manga.<ref>Isao, 2001, op. cit., pp. 147-149.</ref><ref name="Nunez">« »</ref> Examples include Sampei Shirato 's 1959-1962 Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments (Ninja Bugeichō), the story of Kagemaru, the leader of a peasant rebellion in the 1500s, which dealt directly with oppression and class struggle,<ref name="SchodtG1">Schodt, 1986, op. cit., pp. 70-71.</ref> and Hiroshi Hirata's Satsuma Gishiden, about uprisings against the Tokugawa shogunate.<ref name="Hirata"> Search results: Hirata
. Dark Horse
. Retrieved on 2007-12-19. </ref>
As the social protest of these early years waned, gekiga shifted in meaning towards socially conscious, mature drama and towards the avant-garde.<ref name="GravettG"/><ref name="Nunez" /><ref> Takeo , Udagawa
(2007-10-15) . Home Manga Zombie: Manga Zombie - Preface . Comi Press
. Retrieved on 2007-12-19. </ref> Examples include Koike and Kojima's Lone Wolf and Cub<ref>Schodt, 1986, op. cit., p. 72.</ref> and Akira, an apocalyptic tale of motorcycle gangs, street war, and inexplicable transformations of the children of a future Tokyo.<ref> Weiss , Jennifer
(2007-11-01) . The Manga Graphic Novel: A Primer . Associated Content
. Retrieved on 2007-12-20. </ref> Another example is Osamu Tezuka's 1976 manga MW, a bitter story of the aftermath of the storage and possibly deliberate release of poison gas by US armed forces based in Okinawa years after World War II.<ref>« »</ref> Gekiga and the social consciousness it embodies remain alive in modern-day manga. An example is Ikebukuro West Gate Park from 2001 by Ira Ishida and Sena Aritou, a story of street thugs, rape, and vengeance set on the social margins of the wealthy Ikebukuro district of Tokyo.<ref> Pfaender , Fabien
. IWGP, t.1 . planetebd.com
. Retrieved on 2007-12-20. </ref>
International markets
The influence of manga on international cartooning has grown considerably in the last two decades.<ref name="wired">Pink, Daniel H. 2007. "Japan, Ink: Inside the Manga Industrial Complex." Wired Magazine, Issue 15.11, October 22. http://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/magazine/15-11/ff_manga "Japanese comics have gripped the global imagination," first page. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Wong2"> Wong, Wendy (No Date) "The Presence of Manga in Europe and North America." http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Influence refers to effects on comics markets outside of Japan and to aesthetic effects on comics artists internationally.
United States
Manga were introduced only gradually into US markets, first in association with anime and then independently.<ref name="Patten"/> Some US fans were aware of manga in the 1970s and early 1980s.<ref name="Patten2">In 1987, "...Japanese comics were more legendary than accessible to American readers", Patten, 2004, op. cit., p. 259.</ref> However, anime was initially more accessible than manga to US fans,<ref name="NapierFan">For video-centered fan culture, see Susan J. Napier 2000 "Anime: From Akira to Princess Mononoke." NY:Palgrave. Appendix, pp. 239-256 (ISBN 0-312-23863-0) and Jonathan Clements & Helen McCarthy 2006 "The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917, Revised and Expanded Edition." Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press, pp. 475-476 (ISBN 1-933330-10-4).</ref> many of whom were college-age young people who found it easier to obtain, subtitle and exhibit video tapes of anime than translate, reproduce, and distribute tankobon-style manga books.<ref name="Patten"/><ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., chapter 7, pp. 305-340.</ref><ref name="Leonard">Leonard, Sean. 2003. "Progress Against the Law: Fan Distribution, Copyright, and the Explosive Growth of Japanese Animation." http://web.mit.edu/seantek/www/papers/progress-columns.pdf Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> One of the first manga translated into English and marketed in the US was Keiji Nakazawa's Barefoot Gen, an autobiographical story of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima issued by Leonard Rifas and Educomics (1980-1983).<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 309.</ref><ref name="Rifas">Rifas, Leonard. 2004. "Globalizing Comic Books from Below: How Manga Came to America." International Journal of Comic Art, 6(2):138-171.</ref> More manga were translated between the mid-1980s and 1990s, including Golgo 13 in 1986, Lone Wolf and Cub from [[First Comics in 1987, and Kamui, Area 88, and Mai the Psychic Girl, also in 1987 and all from Viz-Eclipse Comics.<ref>Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 37, 259-260.</ref><ref name="Thompson">Thompson, Jason. 2007. "Manga: The Complete Guide." NY: Ballantine Books. p. xv.</ref> Others soon followed, including Akira from Marvel Comics-Epic Comics and Appleseed from Eclipse Comics in 1988, and later Iczer-1 (Antarctic Press, 1994)<ref name="iczer1">http://www.animanga.com/Iczer/golden-warrior.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Ippongi Bang's F-111 Bandit (Antarctic Press, 1995).<ref name="Bang"> Bang, Ippongi. 1995. "F-III Bandit." San Antonio, TX:Antarctic Press.</ref>
In the 1980s to the mid-1990s, Japanese animation, like Akira, Dragonball, Ghost in the Shell, Neon Genesis Evangelion, and Pokémon, dominated the fan experience and the market compared to manga.<ref name="Leonard" /><ref>Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 52-73.</ref><ref name="Thompson2">Farago, Andrew, 2007. Interview: Jason Thompson. http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Matters changed when translator-entrpreneur Toren Smith founded Studio Proteus in 1986. Smith and Studio Proteus acted as an agent and translator of many Japanese manga, including Masamune Shirow's Appleseed and Kosuke Fujishima's Oh My Goddess, for Dark Horse and Eros Comix, eliminating the need for these publishers to seek their own contacts in Japan.<ref name="Schodt 1996A">Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 318-321.</ref><ref name="Smith">Gilman, Michael. (No Date.) "Interview: Toren Smith." http://www.darkhorse.com/news/interviews.php?id=622 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Simultaneously, the Japanese publisher Shogakukan opened a US market initiative with their US subsidiary Viz, enabling Viz to draw directly on Shogakukan's catalogue and translation skills.<ref name="Thompson">http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
The US manga market took an upturn with mid-1990s anime and manga versions of Masamune Shirow's Ghost in the Shell, translated by Frederik L. Schodt and Toren Smith and becoming very popular among fans.<ref name="GITSpopularity">Of 2918 respondents, 2008 ranked the anime as either Masterpiece, Excellent, or Very Good (http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=465). Of 178 respondents, 142 ranked the manga as either Masterpiece, Excellent, or Very Good (http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1590). See also Mays, Jonathan. February 21, 2003. Review: Ghost in the Shell. http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/ghost-in-the-shell/dvd. Accessed 2007-12-16.</ref> Another success of the mid-1990s was Sailor Moon.<ref>Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 50, 110, 124, 128, 135.</ref><ref name="MixxHist">Arnold, Adam. 2000. "Full Circle: The Unofficial History of MixxZine." http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/00.06/feature/1/index.php3 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> By 1995-1998, the Sailor Moon manga had been exported to over 23 countries, including China, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, most of Europe and North America.<ref>Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p. 95.</ref> In 1998, Mixx Entertainment-TokyoPop issued US manga book versions of Sailor Moon and CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth.<ref name="MSU">For the date and identification of the publisher as Mixx, see library records at http://www.lib.msu.edu/comics/rri/mrri/mixi.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> In 1996, Mixx Entertainment founded TokyoPop to publish manga in trade paperbacks and, like Viz, began aggressive marketing of manga to both young male and young female demographics.<ref name="Thompson2" /><ref name="MixxHist2">"Tangerine Dreams: Guide to Shoujo Manga and Anime" April 14, 2005. http://tangerine.astraldream.net/tokyopop.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
In the following years, manga became increasingly popular, and new publishers entered the field while the established publishers greatly expanded their catalogues.<ref> Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 308-319.</ref> As of December 2007, at least 15 US manga publishers have released some 1300-1400 titles.<ref name="Nmanga">The 1300-1400 number is an actual count from two different sources on the web. One is the web manga vendor Anime Castle, which, by actual count, lists 1315 different manga graphic novel titles (a "title" may have multiple volumes, like the 28 volumes of Lone Wolf and Cub).(http://www.animecastle.com/c-18291-graphic-novels-manga.aspx) This list contains some Korean manga and some OEL manga. The second source is Anime News Network, which lists manga publishers plus titles they have published. The total for US manga publishers comes to 1290 by actual count, including some Korean and OEL manga.(http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/company.php) Anime Castle lists another 91 adult graphic novel manga titles.(http://www.animecastle.com/c-18307-mature-adult-Graphic-novels.aspx) Websites accessed December 16-17, 2007.</ref> Simultaneously, mainstream US media began to discuss manga, with articles in the New York Times,<ref name="Glazer">Glazer, Sarah. 2005. "Manga for Girls." The New York Times, September 18. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/18/books/review/18glazer.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Time Magazine,<ref name="Coco">Masters, Coco. 2006. "America is Drawn to Manga." Time Magazine, Thursday, Aug. 10.</ref> the Wall Street Journal,<ref name="WSJ">Bosker, Bianca. 2007. "Manga Mania." Wall Street Journal, Aug. 31. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118851157811713921.html?mod=googlenews_wsj Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Wired Magazine.<ref name="wired" /> As of the end of 2007, manga is a major component of the US comics market.
Europe and the UK
The influence of manga on European cartooning is somewhat different than US experience. French art has borrowed from Japan since the 19th century (Japonisme<ref name="Japonisme">Berger, Klaus. 1992. Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521373212</ref>), and has its own highly developed tradition of bande dessinée cartooning.<ref name="BD">http://www.bande-dessinee.org/ Accessed 2007-12-19</ref> In France, imported manga has easily been assimilated into high art traditions. For example, Volumes 6 and 7 of Yu Aida's Gunslinger Girl center on a cyborg girl, a former ballet dancer named Petruchka. The Asuka edition of Volume 7 contains an essay about the ballet Petruchka by Russian composer Igor Stravinsky and first performed in Paris in 1911.<ref>Massé, Rodolphe. 2006. "La musique dans Gunslinger Girl." In Gunslinger Girl, Volume 7, pp. 178-179. Paris: Asuka Éditions.</ref> However, Francophone readership of manga is not limited to an artistic elite. Instead, beginning in the mid-1990s,<ref name="mahousu">http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> manga has proven very popular to a wide readership, accounting for about one-third of comics sales in France since 2004.<ref name="mahousu"><ref name="mangaFr">http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2004-02-04/manga-mania-in-france Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="cafe1">http://www.cafebabel.com/en/dossierprintversion.asp?Id=362 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> European publishers marketing manga translated into French include Asuka,<ref name="Asuka">http://www.asuka.fr/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Casterman,<ref name="Cas">http://bd.casterman.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Kana,<ref name="Kana1">Kana is an imprint of Dargaud-Lombard. http://www.mangakana.com/main.cfm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Kana2">http://www.mangakana.com/Univers.Series.cfm?Main=1 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Pika,<ref name="Pika">http://www.pika.fr/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> among others.<ref name="mahousu" /><ref name="CaList"> http://www.protoculture.ca/Catalog/mangaf.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> European publishers also translate manga into German,<ref name="Carlsen">http://www.carlsen.de/web/manga/index Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Egmont">http://www.manganet.de/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Italian,<ref name="Panini">Planet Manga, an imprint of Panini; http://www.paninicomics.it/Titolo.jsp Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Star">http://www.starcomics.com/uscite.php?tipo=manga Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Spanish,<ref name="DeAgo">http://www.planetadeagostinicomics.com/manga.asp Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Pon">http://www.ponentmon.com/new_pages/english/princ.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Dutch,<ref name="Holland1">Wolf, T. 2006 (March Image:Cool.gif. "Anime and Manga players in the Dutch market." http://dutch-anime-manga.blogspot.com/2006/03/anime-and-manga-players-in-dutch.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and other languages.<ref name="Danish">For example, Danish: http://www.mangismo.com/dk/default.asp?page=serier Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Manga publishers based in the United Kingdom include Orionbooks/Gollancz<ref name="OB">http://www.orionbooks.co.uk/browse-list-Manga/Manga-Books-and-Authors.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Titan Books.<ref name="Titan1">http://forums.animeuknews.net/viewtopic.php?t=6282 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Titan2">http://www.uksfbooknews.net/2007/03/28/new-manga-range-from-titan-books-launching-in-april/print/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> US manga publishers have a strong marketing presence in the UK, e.g., the Tanoshimi line from Random House.<ref name="Tano">http://www.randomhouse.co.uk/tanoshimi/catalogue.htm Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
Aesthetic influences on cartooning in the US and France
A number of US artists have drawn comics and cartoons influenced by manga. An early example was Vernon Grant, who drew manga-influenced comics while living in Japan in the late 1960s-early 1970s.<ref name="Grant">Stewart, Bhob. "Screaming Metal," The Comics Journal, no. 94, October, 1984.</ref> Others include Frank Miller's mid-1980s Ronin,<ref name="Ronin"> http://www.grovel.org.uk/ronin/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> William Warren and Toren Smith's 1988 The Dirty Pair,<ref name="DirtyPair">http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/the-dirty-pair/run-from-the-future Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Ben Dunn's 1993 Ninja High School,<ref name="Dunn1">http://bendunnmangaartist.100megs24.com/index.php?id=home&content=nhs/nhs Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Dunn2>http://www.atomicavenue.com/atomic/TitleDetail.aspx?TitleID=177 Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Stan Sakai's 1984 Usagi Yojimbo,<ref name="Uyo">http://www.usagiyojimbo.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> and Manga Shi 2000 from Crusade Comics (1997).<ref name="MangaShi1"> Mishkin, Orfalas, and Asencio 1997 "Manga Shi 2000." Rego Park, NY: Crusade Comics. The artists are not further identified.</ref><ref name="MangaShi2"> http://www.crusadefinearts.com/news/20051130definitiveshi.php. The artwork is attributed to William Tucci. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
By the 21st Century, several US manga publishers began to produce work by US artists under the broad marketing label of manga.<ref name="Tai">Tai, Elizabeth. September 23, 2007. "Manga outside Japan." http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2007/9/23/lifebookshelf/18898783&sec=lifebookshelf Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> In 2002, I.C. Entertainment, formerly Studio Ironcat and now out of business, launched a series of manga by US artists called Amerimanga.<ref name="Amerimanga">Anime News Network. November 11, 2002. "I.C. Entertainment (formerly Ironcat) to launch anthology of Manga by American artists". http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2002-11-27/i.c-promotes-amerimanga Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Seven Seas Entertainment followed suit with World Manga.<ref name=SSE1>Anime News Network. May 10, 2006. "Correction: World Manga". http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-10/correction-world-manga. Seven Seas claimed to have coined the term in 2004; Forbes, Jake. (No date). "What is World Manga?" http://www.gomanga.com/news/features_gomanga_002.php Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Simultaneously, TokyoPop introduced original English-language manga (OEL manga) later renamed Global Manga.<ref name TPopOEL">Anime News Network. May 5, 2006. "Tokyopop To Move Away from OEL and World Manga Labels." http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-05/tokyopop-to-move-away-from-oel-and-world-manga-labels. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="GravettOEL">Gravett, Paul. 2006. "ORIGINAL MANGA: MANGA NOT 'MADE IN JAPAN'." http://www.paulgravett.com/articles/092_originalmanga/092_originalmanga.htm. Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> TokyoPop is currently the largest US publisher of original English language manga.<ref name="Kiley">ICv2. September 7, 2007. Interview with Tokyopop's Mike Kiley, http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11249.html (part1), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11250.html (part2), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11251.html (part3). Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Robofish">Robofish. (no date). "Manga, American-style." http://www.tokyopop.com/Robofish/insidetp/688417.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="Reid">Reid, Calvin. March 28, 2006. HarperCollins, "Tokyopop Ink Manga Deal." http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6319467.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
Francophone artists have also developed their own versions of manga, like Frédéric Boilet's la nouvelle manga.<ref name="Boilet">http://www.boilet.net/yukiko/yukiko.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref> Boilet has worked in France and in Japan, sometimes collaborating with Japanese artists.<ref name="Boilet1">Boilet, Frédéric. 2001. "Yukiko's Spinach." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933-0934-6.</ref><ref name="Boilet2">Boilet, Frédéric and Kan Takahama. 2004. "Mariko Parade." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933409-1-X.</ref> A Francophone Canadian example is the Montréal, Québec based artists' group MUSEBasement, which draws manga-style artwork.<ref name="Prevost">http://www.musebasement.com/about.php Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
International Manga Award
In May 2007, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced an international prize for manga of non-Japanese origin. The prize was awarded in late June 2007, with Hong Kong artist Lee Chi Ching winning first place. Runner ups were artists from Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Australia.<ref name=IntlAward1>http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2007-05-22/international-manga-award Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref><ref name="IntlAward">http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2007/6/1174276_828.html Accessed 2007-12-19.</ref>
See also
- Anime
- Dōjinshi
- Hentai
- Japanese popular culture
- La nouvelle manga
- Lianhuanhua
- List of films based on manga
- List of licensed manga in English
- List of manga distributors
- List of manga magazines
- List of mangaka
- Mangaka
- Manga iconography
- Manga outside Japan
- Manhua (Chinese comics)
- Manhwa (Korean comics)
- Nerima, Tokyo
- Oekaki
- Omake
- Original English-language manga
- Otaku
- Scanlation (fan scanned and translated manga)
References
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