Afghanistan

Un article de Vev.

Modèle:Protected Modèle:Infobox Country web.utah.edu/meca/2007Conf/2007%20MECA-%20Final%20Program.pdf], [1]</ref>, the Middle East<ref>UT - MENIC, Afghanistan Profile, National Geographic (accessed 20 January 2006), Afghanistan, CIA Factbook (accessed 20 January 2006), Afghanistan, Middle East Institute (accessed 20 January 2006).</ref>, or South Asia<ref name="SouthAsia">University of California, [2], University of Pennsylvania, World Bank; US maps; [3] ; University of Washington Syracuse University</ref>. It has religious, ethno-linguistic, and geographic links with most of its neighbors. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east,<ref name="India">Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory.</ref> Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast. The name Afghanistan means the "Land of Afghans."//web.utah.edu/meca/2007Conf/2007%20MECA-%20Final%20Program.pdf], [4]</ref>, the Middle East<ref>UT - MENIC, Afghanistan Profile, National Geographic (accessed 20 January 2006), Afghanistan, CIA Factbook (accessed 20 January 2006), Afghanistan, Middle East Institute (accessed 20 January 2006).</ref>, or South Asia<ref name="SouthAsia">University of California, [5], University of Pennsylvania, World Bank; US maps; [6] ; University of Washington Syracuse University</ref>. It has religious, ethno-linguistic, and geographic links with most of its neighbors. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east,<ref name="India">Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory.</ref> Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast. The name Afghanistan means the "Land of Afghans."

concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9354776/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani Ahmad Shah Durrani], Britannica Concise.</ref> Subsequently, most of its territories were ceded to former neighboring countries. In the 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in "The Great Game" played between the British Indian Empire and Russian Empire. On August 19, 1919, following the third Anglo-Afghan war, the country regained full independence from the United Kingdom over its foreign affairs.//concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9354776/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani Ahmad Shah Durrani], Britannica Concise.</ref> Subsequently, most of its territories were ceded to former neighboring countries. In the 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in "The Great Game" played between the British Indian Empire and Russian Empire. On August 19, 1919, following the third Anglo-Afghan war, the country regained full independence from the United Kingdom over its foreign affairs.

Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan has suffered continuous and brutal civil war, which included foreign interventions in the form of the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the 2001 US invasion of Afghanistan, in which the ruling Taliban government was toppled.

In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council authorized the creation of an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). This force, composed of NATO troops, has been involved in assisting the government of President Hamid Karzai in establishing authority across the nation. In 2005, the United States and Afghanistan signed a strategic partnership agreement committing both nations to a long-term relationship. In the meantime, about 40 billion US dollars have also been provided by the international community for the reconstruction of the country. Despite this, as of November 2007, the British Government was still advising against all travel to most of Afghanistan due to "ongoing military activity and lawlessness".

Sommaire 1 Etymology 1.1 Origin of the word "Afghan" 1.2 Meaning and origin of the name "Afghanistan" 2 Geography 3 History 3.1 Islamic conquest 3.2 Hotaki dynasty 3.3 Durrani Empire 3.4 European influence 3.5 Soviet invasion and civil war 3.6 2001-present war in Afghanistan 4 Government and politics 4.1 Military and law enforcement 5 Administrative divisions 6 Economy 7 Demographics 7.1 Languages 7.2 Ethnic groups 7.3 Religions 7.4 Largest cities 8 Culture 9 Infrastructure 9.1 Communications and technology 9.2 Transportation 9.3 Education 10 See also 11 Bibliography 12 References and footnotes 13 External links

Etymology

Main articles: Origins of the name Afghan and List of country name etymologies

The name Afghānistān translates to the "Land of Afghans". Its modern usage derives from the word Afghan.

Origin of the word "Afghan"

www.britannica.com/eb/article-129450/Afghanistan LINK]</ref> The Pashtuns began using the term Afghan as a name for themselves from at least the Islamic period and onwards. According to W. K. Frazier Tyler, M. C. Gillet and several other scholars, "The word Afghan first appears in history in the Hudud-al-Alam in 982 AD."//www.britannica.com/eb/article-129450/Afghanistan LINK]</ref> The Pashtuns began using the term Afghan as a name for themselves from at least the Islamic period and onwards. According to W. K. Frazier Tyler, M. C. Gillet and several other scholars, "The word Afghan first appears in history in the Hudud-al-Alam in 982 AD."

www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f5/v1f5a037.html "Afghan"] (with ref. to "Afghanistan: iv. Ethnography") by Ch. M. Kieffer, Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition 2006.</ref>//www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f5/v1f5a037.html "Afghan"] (with ref. to "Afghanistan: iv. Ethnography") by Ch. M. Kieffer, Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition 2006.</ref>

From a more limited, ethnological point of view, "Afghān" is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan (and the non-Paštō-speaking ethnic groups generally) designate the Paštūn. The equation [of] Afghan [and] Paštūn has been propagated all the more, both in and beyond Afghanistan, because the Paštūn tribal confederation is by far the most important in the country, numerically and politically.

It further explains:

The term "Afghān" has probably designated the Paštūn since ancient times. Under the form Avagānā, this ethnic group is first mentioned by the Indian astronomer Varāha Mihira in the beginning of the 6th century CE in his Brihat-samhita.

Meaning and origin of the name "Afghanistan"

The last part of the name, -stān, is an Indo-Iranian suffix for "place", prominent in many languages of the region.

persian.packhum.org/persian//pf?file=03501051&ct=92 "Transactions of the year 908"] by Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur in Bāburnāma, translated by John Leyden, Oxford University Press: 1921.</ref>//persian.packhum.org/persian//pf?file=03501051&ct=92 "Transactions of the year 908"] by Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur in Bāburnāma, translated by John Leyden, Oxford University Press: 1921.</ref>

Until the 19th century the name was only used for the traditional lands of the Pashtuns, while the kingdom as a whole was known as the Kingdom of Kabul, as mentioned by the British statesman and historian Mountstuart Elphinstone.<ref>Elphinstone, M., "Account of the Kingdom of Cabul and its Dependencies in Persia and India", London 1815; published by Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown</ref> Other parts of the country were at certain periods recognized as independent kingdoms, such as the Kingdom of Balkh in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.<ref>E. Bowen, "A New & Accurate Map of Persia" in A Complete System Of Geography, Printed for W. Innys, R. Ware [etc.], London 1747</ref>

www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm MECW Volume 18, p. 40; The New American Cyclopaedia - Vol. I, 1858]</ref> It became the official name when the country was recognized by the world community in 1919, after regaining its full independence from the British,<ref>M. Ali, "Afghanistan: The War of Independence, 1919", Kabul [s.n.], 1960</ref> and was confirmed as such in the nation's 1923 constitution.<ref>Afghanistan's Constitution of 1923 under King Amanullah Khan (English translation).</ref>//www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm MECW Volume 18, p. 40; The New American Cyclopaedia - Vol. I, 1858]</ref> It became the official name when the country was recognized by the world community in 1919, after regaining its full independence from the British,<ref>M. Ali, "Afghanistan: The War of Independence, 1919", Kabul [s.n.], 1960</ref> and was confirmed as such in the nation's 1923 constitution.<ref>Afghanistan's Constitution of 1923 under King Amanullah Khan (English translation).</ref>

Geography

Main article: Geography of Afghanistan

postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf|title=History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin 1976 - 2005|publisher=|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> Afghanistan has a continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. The country is frequently subject to minor earthquakes, mainly in the northeast of Hindu Kush mountain areas. Some 125 villages were damaged and 4000 people killed by the May 30, 1998 earthquake.//postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf|title=History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin 1976 - 2005|publisher=|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> Afghanistan has a continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. The country is frequently subject to minor earthquakes, mainly in the northeast of Hindu Kush mountain areas. Some 125 villages were damaged and 4000 people killed by the May 30, 1998 earthquake.

www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=73481 Environmental crisis looms as conflict goes on]</ref>//www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=73481 Environmental crisis looms as conflict goes on]</ref>

At 249,984 sq mi (647,500 km²), Afghanistan is the world's 41st-largest country (after Myanmar). Comparatively, it is slightly smaller than the U.S. state of Texas.

www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html Afghanistan], CIA World Factbook.</ref><ref name="AfghanMinerals">Gold and copper discovered in Afghanistan</ref><ref>http://www.wise-uranium.org/uissr05.html#NEWDISC</ref><ref>16 detained for smuggling chromites, Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref> However, these significant mineral and energy resources remain largely untapped due to the effects of the Soviet invasion and the subsequent civil war. Plans are underway to begin extracting them in the near future.<ref name="Eurasianet">Afghanistan’s Energy Future and its Potential Implications, Eurasianet.org.</ref><ref name="Pajhwok">Govt plans to lease out Ainak copper mine, Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>//www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html Afghanistan], CIA World Factbook.</ref><ref name="AfghanMinerals">Gold and copper discovered in Afghanistan</ref><ref>http://www.wise-uranium.org/uissr05.html#NEWDISC</ref><ref>16 detained for smuggling chromites, Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref> However, these significant mineral and energy resources remain largely untapped due to the effects of the Soviet invasion and the subsequent civil war. Plans are underway to begin extracting them in the near future.<ref name="Eurasianet">Afghanistan’s Energy Future and its Potential Implications, Eurasianet.org.</ref><ref name="Pajhwok">Govt plans to lease out Ainak copper mine, Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>

History

Main article: History of Afghanistan

concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9354776/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani Ahmad Shah Durrani], Britannica Concise.</ref> the land has an ancient history and various timelines of different civilizations. Excavation of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree, the University of Pennsylvania, the Smithsonian Institute and others suggests that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the area were among the earliest in the world.<ref>Sites in Perspective, chapter 3 of Nancy Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide To Afghanistan.</ref><ref>Afghanistan, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 (specifically John Ford Shroder, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.//concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9354776/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani Ahmad Shah Durrani], Britannica Concise.</ref> the land has an ancient history and various timelines of different civilizations. Excavation of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree, the University of Pennsylvania, the Smithsonian Institute and others suggests that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the area were among the earliest in the world.<ref>Sites in Perspective, chapter 3 of Nancy Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide To Afghanistan.</ref><ref>Afghanistan, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 (specifically John Ford Shroder, B.S., M.S., Ph.D. Regents Professor of Geography and Geology, University of Nebraska. Editor, Himalaya to the Sea: Geology, Geomorphology, and the Quaternary and other books).</ref>

Afghanistan is a country at a unique nexus point where numerous Indo-European civilizations have interacted and often fought, and was an important site of early historical activity. Through the ages, the region has been home to various people, among them the Aryan (Indo-Iranian) tribes, such as the Kambojas, Bactrians, Persians, etc. It also has been conquered by a host of people, including the Median and Persian Empires, Alexander the Great, Kushans, Hepthalites, Arabs, Turks, and Mongols. In recent times, unsuccessful invasions from the British, Soviets, and most recently by the Americans and their allies have taken place. On the other hand, native entities have invaded surrounding regions in Iranian plateau and Indian subcontinent to form empires of their own.

Between 2000 and 1200 BC, Indo-European-speaking Aryans are thought to have been in the region of northern Afghanistan. It is uncertain as to whether the Aryans themselves originated in Afghanistan and migrated south towards India and west towards Persia and then Europe, setting up a nation that during the rule of Medes and Achaemenid Persians became known as Aryānām Xšaθra or Airyānem Vāejah. Other original homelands of the Aryans have been proposed as Anatolia, South Central Asia, Iran, or Northern India, with the directions of the historical migration varying accordingly. Later, during the rule of Ashkanian, Sasanian and after, it was called Erānshahr (Modèle:PerB - Īrānšahr) meaning "Dominion of the Aryans."

www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html Ghandara.com website]</ref><ref>Afghanistan: Achaemenid dynasty rule, Ancient Classical History, about.com</ref>. Ancient Eastern Iranian languages, such as Avestan, may have been spoken in this region around the time of the rise of Zoroastrianism. By the middle of the sixth century BC, the Persian Empire of the Achaemenids supplanted the Median Empire and incorporated what was known as Persia to the Greeks within its boundaries; and by 330 BC, Alexander the Great invaded Afghanistan and conquered the surrounding regions. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the Hellenistic successor states of the Seleucids and Greco-Bactrians controlled the area, while the Mauryas from India annexed the southeast for a time and introduced Buddhism to the region until the area returned to the Bactrian rule.//www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html Ghandara.com website]</ref><ref>Afghanistan: Achaemenid dynasty rule, Ancient Classical History, about.com</ref>. Ancient Eastern Iranian languages, such as Avestan, may have been spoken in this region around the time of the rise of Zoroastrianism. By the middle of the sixth century BC, the Persian Empire of the Achaemenids supplanted the Median Empire and incorporated what was known as Persia to the Greeks within its boundaries; and by 330 BC, Alexander the Great invaded Afghanistan and conquered the surrounding regions. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the Hellenistic successor states of the Seleucids and Greco-Bactrians controlled the area, while the Mauryas from India annexed the southeast for a time and introduced Buddhism to the region until the area returned to the Bactrian rule.

During the first century AD, the Kushans created a vast empire centered in modern Afghanistan and were patrons of Buddhist culture. The Kushans were defeated by the Sassanids in the third century. Although various rulers calling themselves Kushans (and generally known as Kushano-Sasanians) continued to rule at least parts of the region, they were probably more or less subject to the Sassanids.<ref>Dani, A. H. and B. A. Litvinsky. "The Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom." In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 103–118. ISBN 92-3-103211-9</ref> The late Kushans were followed by the Kidarite Huns<ref>Zeimal, E. V. "The Kidarite Kingdom in Central Asia." In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996, Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 119–133. ISBN 92-3-103211-9</ref> who, in turn, were replaced by the short-lived but powerful Hephthalites, as rulers of the region in the first half of the fifth century.<ref>Litvinsky, B. A. "The Hephthalite Empire." In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996, Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 135–162. ISBN 92-3-103211-9</ref> The Hephthalites were defeated by the Sasanian king Khosrau I in AD 557, who re-established Sasanian power in Persia. However, the successors of Kushans and Hepthalites established a small dynasty in Kabulistan called Kushano-Hephthalites or Kabul-Shahan/Shahi and were later defeated by the Muslim armies.

Islamic conquest

Main article: Islamic conquest of Afghanistan

www.tajik-gateway.org/index.phtml?lang=en&id=1005 "Tajikistan Development Gateway"] from History of Afghanistan by the Development Gateway Foundation</ref> Several important centers of Khorāsān are thus located in modern Afghanistan, such as Balkh, Herat, Ghazni and Kabul. It was during this period of time when Islam was introduced and spread in the area.//www.tajik-gateway.org/index.phtml?lang=en&id=1005 "Tajikistan Development Gateway"] from History of Afghanistan by the Development Gateway Foundation</ref> Several important centers of Khorāsān are thus located in modern Afghanistan, such as Balkh, Herat, Ghazni and Kabul. It was during this period of time when Islam was introduced and spread in the area.

www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036676/Ghaznavid-Dynasty "Ghaznavid Dynasty"], Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Edition.</ref> of Ghazni, and Timurids<ref>"Timurid Dynasty", Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Edition.</ref> of Herat are considered as some of the most brilliant eras of Afghanistan's history.//www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036676/Ghaznavid-Dynasty "Ghaznavid Dynasty"], Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Edition.</ref> of Ghazni, and Timurids<ref>"Timurid Dynasty", Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Edition.</ref> of Herat are considered as some of the most brilliant eras of Afghanistan's history.

In 1219 it was overrun by the Mongols under Genghis Khan, who devastated the land. Their rule continued with the Ilkhanates, and was extended further following the invasion of Timur Lang ("Tamerlane"), a ruler from Central Asia. In 1504, Babur, a descendant of both Timur Lang and Genghis Khan, established the Mughal Empire with its capital at Kabul. By the early 1700s, Afghanistan was controlled by several ruling groups: Uzbeks to the north, Safavids to the west and the remaining larger area by the Mughals or self-ruled by local Afghan tribes.

Hotaki dynasty

Main article: Hotaki dynasty

www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f8/v2f8a024.html "Ašraf Ghilzai"] by Prof. D. Balland, Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition 2006.</ref><ref>"The Hotakis" in "Afghanistan", Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref>//www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f8/v2f8a024.html "Ašraf Ghilzai"] by Prof. D. Balland, Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition 2006.</ref><ref>"The Hotakis" in "Afghanistan", Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref>

Durrani Empire

Main article: Durrani Empire

www.britannica.com/eb/article-21396/Afghanistan "The Durranti dynasty"] in "Afghanistan", Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref> conquered the region of Kandahar; in the same year he occupied Ghazni, Kabul and Lahore. On June 19, 1747, Nadir Shah was assassinated, possibly planned by his nephew Ali Qoli. In the same year, one of Nadir's military commanders and personal bodyguard, Ahmad Shah Abdali, a Pashtun from the Abdali clan, called for a loya jirga following Nadir's death. The Afghans gathered at Kandahar and chose Ahmad Shah as their King. Since then, he is often regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan.<ref name="CIA"/><ref name="Britannica">"Ahmad Shah Durrani", Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref><ref>The South, chapter 16 of Nancy Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide To Afghanistan.</ref> After the inauguration, he changed his title or clans' name to "Durrani", which derives from the Persian word Durr, meaning "Pearl".<ref name="DurraniDynasty"/>//www.britannica.com/eb/article-21396/Afghanistan "The Durranti dynasty"] in "Afghanistan", Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref> conquered the region of Kandahar; in the same year he occupied Ghazni, Kabul and Lahore. On June 19, 1747, Nadir Shah was assassinated, possibly planned by his nephew Ali Qoli. In the same year, one of Nadir's military commanders and personal bodyguard, Ahmad Shah Abdali, a Pashtun from the Abdali clan, called for a loya jirga following Nadir's death. The Afghans gathered at Kandahar and chose Ahmad Shah as their King. Since then, he is often regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan.<ref name="CIA"/><ref name="Britannica">"Ahmad Shah Durrani", Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref><ref>The South, chapter 16 of Nancy Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide To Afghanistan.</ref> After the inauguration, he changed his title or clans' name to "Durrani", which derives from the Persian word Durr, meaning "Pearl".<ref name="DurraniDynasty"/>

By 1751 Ahmad Shah Durrani and his Afghan army conquered the entire present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, Khorasan and Kohistan provinces of Iran, along with Delhi in India.<ref name="MECW"/> In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired to his home in Maruf, Kandahar, where he died peacefully. He was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah Durrani, who transferred the capital from Kandahar to Kabul. Timur died in 1793 and was finally succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani.

European influence

Main article: European influence in Afghanistan

During the nineteenth century, following the Anglo-Afghan wars (fought 1839–42, 1878–80, and lastly in 1919) and the ascension of the Barakzai dynasty, Afghanistan saw much of its territory and autonomy ceded to the United Kingdom. The UK exercised a great deal of influence, and it was not until King Amanullah Khan acceded to the throne in 1919 that Afghanistan re-gained complete independence over its foreign affairs (see "The Great Game"). During the period of British intervention in Afghanistan, ethnic Pashtun territories were divided by the Durand Line. This would lead to strained relations between Afghanistan and British India – and later the new state of Pakistan – over what came to be known as the Pashtunistan debate. The longest period of stability in Afghanistan was between 1933 and 1973, when the country was under the rule of King Zahir Shah.

However, in 1973 Zahir Shah's brother-in-law, Sardar Daoud Khan, launched a bloodless coup. Daoud Khan and his entire family were murdered in 1978, when the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan launched a coup known as the Great Saur Revolution and took over the government.

Soviet invasion and civil war

Main articles: Soviet war in Afghanistan and Civil war in Afghanistan

As part of a Cold War strategy, in 1979 the United States government (under President Jimmy Carter and National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski) began to covertly fund and train anti-government Mujahideen forces through the Pakistani secret service known as Inter Services Intelligence (ISI). In order to bolster the local Communist forces, the Soviet Union—citing the 1978 Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighborliness that had been signed between the two countries—intervened on December 24, 1979. Over 100,000 Soviet troops took part in the invasion, who were backed by another 100,000 and plus pro-communist forces of Afghanistan. The Soviet occupation resulted in the killings of at least 600,000 to 2 million Afghan civilians. Over five million Afghans fled their country to Pakistan, Iran and other parts of the world. Faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties on both sides, the Soviets withdrew in 1989.

The Soviet withdrawal from the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was seen as an ideological victory in the US, which had backed the Mujahideen through three US presidential administrations in order to counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-rich Persian Gulf.

www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html "Afghanistan: History"], Columbia Encyclopedia.</ref>//www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html "Afghanistan: History"], Columbia Encyclopedia.</ref>

The result of the fighting was that the vast majority of the elites and intellectuals had escaped to take refuge abroad, a dangerous leadership vacuum thereby coming into existence. Fighting continued among the victorious Mujahideen factions, eventually giving rise to a state of warlordism. The most serious fighting during this period occurred in 1994, when over 10,000 people were killed in Kabul alone. The chaos and corruption that dominated post-Soviet Afghanistan in turn spawned the rise of the Taliban. The Taliban developed as a politico-religious force, and eventually seized Kabul in 1996. By the end of 2000 the Taliban were able to capture 95% of the country, aside from the opposition (Afghan Northern Alliance) strongholds primarily found in the northeast corner of Badakhshan Province. The Taliban sought to impose a very strict interpretation of Islamic law.

opioids.com/afghanistan/index.html]</ref>//opioids.com/afghanistan/index.html]</ref>

2001-present war in Afghanistan

Main article: War in Afghanistan (2001-present)

Following the September 11, 2001 attacks the United States launched Operation Enduring Freedom, a military campaign to destroy the al-Qaeda terrorist training camps inside Afghanistan. The US military also threatened to overthrow the Taliban government for refusing to hand over Osama bin Laden and several al-Qaida members. The US made a common cause with the former Afghan Mujahideen to achieve its ends. In December of the same year, leaders of the former Afghan mujahideen and diaspora met in Germany, and agreed on a plan for the formulation of a new democratic government that resulted in the inauguration of Hamid Karzai, an ethnic Pashtun from the southern city of Kandahar, as Chairman of the Afghan Interim Authority.

After a nationwide Loya Jirga in 2002, Karzai was chosen by the representatives to assume the title as Interim President of Afghanistan. The country convened a Constitutional Loya Jirga (Council of Elders) in 2003 and a new constitution was ratified in January 2004. Following an election in October 2004, Hamid Karzai won and became the President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Legislative elections were held in September 2005. The National Assembly – the first freely elected legislature in Afghanistan since 1973 – sat in December 2005, and was noteworthy for the inclusion of women as voters, candidates, and elected members.

As the country continues to rebuild and recover, it is still struggling against poverty, poor infrastructure, large concentration of land mines and other unexploded ordnance on earth, as well as a huge illegal poppy cultivation and opium trade. Afghanistan also remains subject to occasionally violent political jockeying. The country continues to grapple with the Taliban insurgency and the threat of attacks from a few remaining al Qaeda.

At the start of 2007 reports of the Taliban's increasing presence in Afghanistan led the US to consider longer tours of duty and even an increase in troop numbers. According to a report filed by Robert Burns of Associated Press on January 16, 2007, "U.S. military officials cited new evidence that the Pakistani military, which has long-standing ties to the Taliban movement, has turned a blind eye to the incursions." Also, "The number of insurgent attacks is up 300 percent since September, 2006, when the Pakistani government put into effect a peace arrangement with tribal leaders in the north Waziristan area, along Afghanistan's eastern border, a U.S. military intelligence officer told reporters."

Modèle:Seealso

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Afghanistan

Politics in Afghanistan has historically consisted of power struggles, bloody coups and unstable transfers of power. With the exception of a military junta, the country has been governed by nearly every system of government over the past century, including a monarchy, republic, theocracy and communist state. The constitution ratified by the 2003 Loya jirga restructured the government as an Islamic republic consisting of three branches, (executive, legislature and judiciary).

Afghanistan is currently led by President Hamid Karzai, who was elected in October 2004. The current parliament was elected in 2005. Among the elected officials were former mujahadeen, Taliban members, communists, reformists, and Islamic fundamentalists. 28% of the delegates elected were women, 3 points more than the 25% minimum guaranteed under the constitution. This made Afghanistan, long known under the Taliban for its oppression of women, one of the leading countries in terms of female representation. Construction for a new parliament building began on August 29, 2005.

www.e-ariana.com/ariana/eariana.nsf/allDocs/E78CB0C74F5E7142872571C90048D8BD?OpenDocument ] - New Supreme Court Could Mark Genuine Departure - August 13, 2006</ref> The previous court, appointed during the time of the interim government, had been dominated by fundamentalist religious figures, including Chief Justice Faisal Ahmad Shinwari. The court had issued numerous questionable rulings, such as banning cable television, seeking to ban a candidate in the 2004 presidential election and limiting the rights of women, as well as overstepping its constitutional authority by issuing rulings on subjects not yet brought before the court. The current court is seen as more moderate and led by more technocrats than the previous court, although it has yet to issue any rulings.//www.e-ariana.com/ariana/eariana.nsf/allDocs/E78CB0C74F5E7142872571C90048D8BD?OpenDocument ] - New Supreme Court Could Mark Genuine Departure - August 13, 2006</ref> The previous court, appointed during the time of the interim government, had been dominated by fundamentalist religious figures, including Chief Justice Faisal Ahmad Shinwari. The court had issued numerous questionable rulings, such as banning cable television, seeking to ban a candidate in the 2004 presidential election and limiting the rights of women, as well as overstepping its constitutional authority by issuing rulings on subjects not yet brought before the court. The current court is seen as more moderate and led by more technocrats than the previous court, although it has yet to issue any rulings.

Modèle:Seealso

Military and law enforcement

Main article: Military of Afghanistan

lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf Afghanistan (Feb 2005) profile] from the Library of Congress Country Studies project.</ref>//lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf Afghanistan (Feb 2005) profile] from the Library of Congress Country Studies project.</ref>

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Afghanistan and Districts of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is administratively divided into thirty-four (34) provinces (welayats), and for each province there is a capital. Each province is then divided into many provincial districts, and each district normally covers a city or several townships.

The Governor of the province is appointed by the Ministry of Interior, and the Prefects for the districts of the province will be appointed by the provincial Governor. The Governor is the representative of the central government of Afghanistan, and is responsible for all administrative and formal issues. The provincial Chief of Police is appointed by the Ministry of Interior, who works together with the Governor on law enforcement for all the cities or districts of that province.

There is an exception in the capital city (Kabul) where the Mayor is selected by the President of Afghanistan, and is completely independent from the prefecture of the Kabul Province.

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Economy

Main article: Economy of Afghanistan

www.voanews.com/english/archive/2005-03/2005-03-28-voa53.cfm|title=Poor Afghanistan|last=Morales|first=Victor|publisher=Voice of America|date=2005-03-28|accessdate=2006-09-10}}</ref><ref> North , Andrew

     (2004-03-30)
   
.    Why Afghanistan wants $27.6bn 
. BBC News 
   

. Retrieved on 2006-09-10. </ref>//www.voanews.com/english/archive/2005-03/2005-03-28-voa53.cfm|title=Poor Afghanistan|last=Morales|first=Victor|publisher=Voice of America|date=2005-03-28|accessdate=2006-09-10}}</ref><ref> North , Andrew

     (2004-03-30)
   
.    Why Afghanistan wants $27.6bn 
. BBC News 
   

. Retrieved on 2006-09-10. </ref>

www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html#Econ</ref> The number of non-skilled young people is estimated at 3 million, which is likely to increase by some 300,000 per annum.<ref name=Fujimura>Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute</ref>//www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html#Econ</ref> The number of non-skilled young people is estimated at 3 million, which is likely to increase by some 300,000 per annum.<ref name=Fujimura>Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute</ref>

web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/EXTSARREGTOPMACECOGRO/0,,contentMDK:20592478~menuPK:579404~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:579398,00.html Macroeconomics & Economic Growth in South Asia], The World Bank.</ref> As much as one-third of Afghanistan's GDP comes from growing poppy and illicit drugs including opium and its two derivatives, morphine and heroin, as well as hashish production.<ref name="CIA"/> Opium production in Afghanistan has soared to a new record in 2007, with an increase on last year of more than a third, the United Nations has said.<ref>Afghan opium production at record high</ref> Some 3.3 million Afghans are now involved in producing opium.<ref>UN horrified by surge in opium trade in Helmand</ref>//web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/EXTSARREGTOPMACECOGRO/0,,contentMDK:20592478~menuPK:579404~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:579398,00.html Macroeconomics & Economic Growth in South Asia], The World Bank.</ref> As much as one-third of Afghanistan's GDP comes from growing poppy and illicit drugs including opium and its two derivatives, morphine and heroin, as well as hashish production.<ref name="CIA"/> Opium production in Afghanistan has soared to a new record in 2007, with an increase on last year of more than a third, the United Nations has said.<ref>Afghan opium production at record high</ref> Some 3.3 million Afghans are now involved in producing opium.<ref>UN horrified by surge in opium trade in Helmand</ref>

www.twq.com/07winter/index.cfm?id=234</ref>//www.twq.com/07winter/index.cfm?id=234</ref>

There is no time to waste, as Afghanistan could well be slipping back to chaos and civil strife. Tackling the drug economy is central to easing Afghanistan's ills, and the only remaining alternative is the poppies for peace proposal, using medicinal poppy cultivation as bridge to sustainable development and lasting security in Afghanistan.

www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=51510&SelectRegion=Asia&SelectCountry=AFGHANISTAN Government to have greater control over aid pledged in London], irinnews.org.</ref> In early 2007, 11.6 billion dollars were committed to the country from the United States alone. Priority areas for reconstruction include the rebuilding of the educational system, health, and sanitation facilities, enhancement of administrative capacity, the development of the agricultural sector, and the rebuilding of road, energy, and telecommunication links.//www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=51510&SelectRegion=Asia&SelectCountry=AFGHANISTAN Government to have greater control over aid pledged in London], irinnews.org.</ref> In early 2007, 11.6 billion dollars were committed to the country from the United States alone. Priority areas for reconstruction include the rebuilding of the educational system, health, and sanitation facilities, enhancement of administrative capacity, the development of the agricultural sector, and the rebuilding of road, energy, and telecommunication links.

www.adbi.org/research-policy-brief/2004/10/15/698.afghan.economy.after.election/ Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute]</ref> In 2006, two US companies, Black & Veatch and the Louis Berger Group, have won a US 1.4 billion dollar contract to rebuild roads, power lines and water supply systems of Afghanistan.<ref>"Midday Business Report: Black & Veatch unit gains piece of Afghan contract", The Kansas City Star.</ref>//www.adbi.org/research-policy-brief/2004/10/15/698.afghan.economy.after.election/ Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute]</ref> In 2006, two US companies, Black & Veatch and the Louis Berger Group, have won a US 1.4 billion dollar contract to rebuild roads, power lines and water supply systems of Afghanistan.<ref>"Midday Business Report: Black & Veatch unit gains piece of Afghan contract", The Kansas City Star.</ref>

www.contracostatimes.com/mld/cctimes/business/15498245.htm "Coca-Cola opens plant in Afghanistan"], Contra Costa Times.</ref>//www.contracostatimes.com/mld/cctimes/business/15498245.htm "Coca-Cola opens plant in Afghanistan"], Contra Costa Times.</ref>

While the country's current account deficit is largely financed with the donor money, only a small portion – about 15% – is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations. The government had a central budget of only $350 million in 2003 and an estimated $550 million in 2004. The country's foreign exchange reserves totals about $500 million. Revenue is mostly generated through customs, as income and corporate tax bases are negligible.

www.adbi.org/research-policy-brief/2004/10/15/698.afghan.economy.after.election/ Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute]</ref>//www.adbi.org/research-policy-brief/2004/10/15/698.afghan.economy.after.election/ Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute]</ref>

The Afghan government and international donors seem to remain committed to improving access to basic necessities, infrastructure development, education, housing and economic reform. The central government is also focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. The rebuilding of the financial sector seems to have been so far successful. Money can now be transferred in and out of the country via official banking channels. Since 2003, over fourteen new banks have opened in the country, including Standard Chartered Bank, Afghanistan International Bank, Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, First Micro Finance Bank, and others. A new law on private investment provides three to seven-year tax holidays to eligible companies and a four-year exemption from exports tariffs and duties.

www.cityoflight-kabul.com/p11.htm Kabul - City of Light Project]</ref> revitalizing some of the most commercial and historic districts in the City of Kabul, which contains numerous historic mosques and shrines as well as viable commercial activities among war damaged buildings. Also incorporated in the design is a new complex for the Afghan National Museum.//www.cityoflight-kabul.com/p11.htm Kabul - City of Light Project]</ref> revitalizing some of the most commercial and historic districts in the City of Kabul, which contains numerous historic mosques and shrines as well as viable commercial activities among war damaged buildings. Also incorporated in the design is a new complex for the Afghan National Museum.

www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav090306.shtml Afghanistan’s Energy Future and its Potential Implications], Eurasianet.org.</ref> Other reports suggest that the country has huge amounts of gold, copper, coal, iron ore and other rich minerals.<ref name="AfghanMinerals"/><ref name="Pajhwok"/>//www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav090306.shtml Afghanistan’s Energy Future and its Potential Implications], Eurasianet.org.</ref> Other reports suggest that the country has huge amounts of gold, copper, coal, iron ore and other rich minerals.<ref name="AfghanMinerals"/><ref name="Pajhwok"/>

Afghanistan is now a member of SAARC and ECO regional organizations, as well as the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

Modèle:Seealso

Demographics

Main article: Demography of Afghanistan

Modèle:See news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3717092.stm BBC News - Afghan poll's ethnic battleground - October 6, 2004]</ref> Therefore most figures are approximations only.//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3717092.stm BBC News - Afghan poll's ethnic battleground - October 6, 2004]</ref> Therefore most figures are approximations only.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Afghanistan

Modèle:Columns

Ethnic groups

www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook]</ref>)//www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook]</ref>)

 Modèle:Legend
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Modèle:SpacesModèle:Smaller

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       Modèle:Legend

Modèle:SpacesModèle:Smaller ]] www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook]</ref> is as following://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook]</ref> is as following:

• Pashtun: 42%
• Tajik: 27%
• Hazara: 9%
• Uzbek: 9%
• Aimak: 4%
• Turkmen: 3%
• Baloch: 2%
• Other: 4%

www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f5/v1f5a040a.html LINK])</ref> gives the following list://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f5/v1f5a040a.html LINK])</ref> gives the following list:

• 36.4% Pashtun
• 33.6% Tajik, Farsiwan, and Qezelbash
• 8.0% Hazara
• 8.0% Uzbek
• 3.2% Aimak
• 1.6% Baloch
• 9.2% other

Religions

Main article: Religion in Afghanistan

www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml Hinduism Today: Hindus Abandon Afghanistan]</ref><ref>BBC South Asia: Sikhs struggle in Afghanistan</ref>//www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml Hinduism Today: Hindus Abandon Afghanistan]</ref><ref>BBC South Asia: Sikhs struggle in Afghanistan</ref>

www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html Washingtonpost.com - Afghan Jew Becomes Country's One and Only - N.C. Aizenman]</ref>//www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html Washingtonpost.com - Afghan Jew Becomes Country's One and Only - N.C. Aizenman]</ref>

Largest cities

Modèle:Seealso The only city in Afghanistan with over one million residents is its capital, Kabul. The other major cities in the country are, in order of population size, Kandahar, Herat, Mazari Sharif, Jalalabad, Ghazni and Kunduz.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Afghanistan

Afghans display pride in their religion, country, ancestry, and above all, their independence. Like other highlanders, Afghans are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, for their high regard for personal honor, for their clan loyalty and for their readiness to carry and use arms to settle disputes.<ref name="Heathcote">Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839–1919", Sellmount Staplehurst</ref> As clan warfare and internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreign invaders to hold the region.

Afghanistan has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of the country's historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars. The two famous statues of Buddha in the Bamyan Province were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. Other famous sites include the very cities of Kandahar, Herat, Ghazni and Balkh. The Minaret of Jam, in the Hari Rud valley, is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The cloak worn by Muhammad is stored inside the famous Khalka Sharifa in Kandahar City.

Buzkashi is a national sport in Afghanistan. It is similar to polo and played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold off a goat carcass. Afghan hounds (a type of running dog) also originated from Afghanistan.

Although literacy levels are very low, classic Persian poetry plays a very important role in the Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in Iran and Afghanistan, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Persian culture has, and continues to, exert a great influence over Afghan culture. Private poetry competition events known as “musha’era” are quite common even among ordinary people. Almost every home owns one or more poetry collection of some sort, even if it is not read often.

www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/pdfarticles/v1_articles/afghanistan/literature&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/logs/pdfdownload.html "Modern literature of Afghanistan"] by R. Farhādī, Encyclopaedia Iranica, xii, Online Edition.</ref>//www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/pdfarticles/v1_articles/afghanistan/literature&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/logs/pdfdownload.html "Modern literature of Afghanistan"] by R. Farhādī, Encyclopaedia Iranica, xii, Online Edition.</ref>

Many of the famous Persian poets of the tenth to fifteenth centuries stem from Khorasan where is now known as Afghanistan. They were mostly also scholars in many disciplines like languages, natural sciences, medicine, religion and astronomy.

• Mawlānā Rumi, who was born and educated in Balkh in the thirteenth century and moved to Konya in modern-day Turkey
• Rabi'a Balkhi (the first poetess in the History of Persian Poetry, tenth century, native of Balkh)
• Daqiqi Balkhi (tenth century, native of Balkh)
• Farrukhi Sistani (tenth century, the Ghaznavids royal poet)
• Unsuri Balkhi (a tenth/eleventh century poet, native of Balkh)
• Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (eleventh century, from Herat)
• Nasir Khusraw (eleventh century, from Qubadyan near Balkh)
• Anvari (twelfth century, lived and died in Balkh)
• Sanā'ī Ghaznawi (twelfth century, native of Ghazni)
• Jāmī of Herāt (fifteenth century, native of Herat in western Afghanistan), and his nephew Abdullah Hatifi Herawi, a well-known poet
• Alī Sher Navā'ī (fifteenth century, Herat).

www.afghanmagazine.com/arts/khalili/khalili.html Afghanmagazine.com - Ustad Khalilullah Khalili - 1997]</ref> Sufi Ghulam Nabi Ashqari,<ref>Afghanmagazine.com - Kharaabat - by Yousef Kohzad - 2000</ref> Sarwar Joya, Qahar Asey, Parwin Pazwak and others. In 2003, Khaled Hosseini published The Kiterunner which though fiction, captured much of the history, politics and culture experienced in Afghanistan from the 1930s to present day.//www.afghanmagazine.com/arts/khalili/khalili.html Afghanmagazine.com - Ustad Khalilullah Khalili - 1997]</ref> Sufi Ghulam Nabi Ashqari,<ref>Afghanmagazine.com - Kharaabat - by Yousef Kohzad - 2000</ref> Sarwar Joya, Qahar Asey, Parwin Pazwak and others. In 2003, Khaled Hosseini published The Kiterunner which though fiction, captured much of the history, politics and culture experienced in Afghanistan from the 1930s to present day.

In addition to poets and authors, numerous Persian scientists have had their origins lie in where it's now called Afghanistan. Most notable was Avicenna (Abu Alī Hussein ibn Sīnā) whose father hailed from Balkh. Ibn Sīnā, who travelled to Isfahan later in life to establish a medical school there, is known by some scholars as "the father of modern medicine". George Sarton called ibn Sīnā "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." His most famous works are The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, also known as the Qanun. Ibn Sīnā's story even found way to the contemporary English literature through Noah Gordon's The Physician, now published in many languages. Moreover, according to Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Farabi, a well-known Philosopher and Scientist, was from the Faryab Province of Afghanistan, .

Before the Taliban gained power, the city of Kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the Nauroz-celebration. Kabul in the middle part of the twentieth century has been likened to Vienna during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

The tribal system, which orders the life of most people outside metropolitan areas, is potent in political terms. Men feel a fierce loyalty to their own tribe, such that, if called upon, they would assemble in arms under the tribal chiefs and local clan leaders (Khans). In theory, under Islamic law, every believer has an obligation to bear arms at the ruler's call (Ulul-Amr).

Heathcote considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle.<ref name="Heathcote">Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839–1919", Sellmount Staplehurst</ref>

Infrastructure

Communications and technology

Main article: Communications in Afghanistan

www.pajhwok.com/viewstory.asp?lng=eng&id=26882 Ministry signs contract with Chinese company], Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>//www.pajhwok.com/viewstory.asp?lng=eng&id=26882 Ministry signs contract with Chinese company], Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>

Transportation

Main article: Transportation in Afghanistan

Afghanistan's commercial airline, Ariana Afghan Airlines, now serves flights to Frankfurt, Dubai and Istanbul to and from Kabul and Herat. Automobiles have recently become more widely available, with Toyota, Land Rover, BMW and Hyundai dealerships all over Kabul, and imports of second-hand vehicles from the UAE on display in Kandahar.Modèle:Facts

Education

Main article: Education in Afghanistan

In early 2003 it was estimated that 30% of Afghanistan's 7,000 schools had been very seriously damaged during more than two decades of civil war. Only half of the schools were reported to have clean water, while fewer than an estimated 40% had adequate sanitation.

As regards the poverty and violence of their surroundings, a study in 2002 by the Save the Children Fund said Afghan children were resilient and courageous. The study credited the strong institutions of family and community.

As of 2006 more than four million male and female students are enrolled in schools throughout the country. Primary education is totally free and available for all boys and girls.

Literacy of the entire population is estimated (as of 1999) at 36%, the male literacy rate is 51% and female literacy is 21%. Up to now there are 9,500 schools in the country.

www.pajhwok.com/viewstory.asp?lng=eng&id=28303 Pakistan grants $10m for Balkh University], Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>//www.pajhwok.com/viewstory.asp?lng=eng&id=28303 Pakistan grants $10m for Balkh University], Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>

See also

Modèle:Portal

• History of Afghanistan
• Foreign relations of Afghanistan
• Human rights in Afghanistan
• Help Afghan School Children Organization
• Afghan Scout Association
• Golden Needle Sewing School
• Afghanaid
• Afuganisu-tan

Bibliography

References and footnotes

External links

Modèle:Externallinks Modèle:Wikisource1911Enc Modèle:Sisterlinks

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