Iran
Un article de Vev.
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Iran, (Modèle:PerB, Modèle:Audio-IPA), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Modèle:PerB, pronounced [[[Modèle:IPA]]]), formerly known internationally as Persia, is a Southwest Asian country located in the geographical territories of the Middle East, Southern Asia,<ref> United Nations Statistics Division
. Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings
. Retrieved on 2007-05-16. </ref>, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Shi'a Islam is the state religion and Persian the official language.<ref> قانون اساسی جمهوری اسلامی ایران
(Persian)
.</ref> The 18th largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km², Iran is about the size of United Kingdom, France, Spain and Germany combined. It has a population of over seventy million people.
Iran borders Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan to the north; Afghanistan and Pakistan to the east; and Turkey and Iraq to the west. In addition, it borders the Persian Gulf, an important oil-producing area, Gulf of Oman, and the Caspian Sea.
The political system of Iran, based on the 1979 Constitution, comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The highest state authority is the Supreme Leader, currently Ayatollah Ali Khamenei.
Iran is one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BCE,<ref name="xinhuaciv">Xinhua, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iran-daily">Iran Daily, "Panorama", 3 Mar 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iranian.ws">Iranian.ws, "Archaeologists: Modern civilization began in Iran based on new evidence", 12 Aug 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> and throughout history, Iran has been of geostrategic importance because of its central location in Eurasia<ref name="petro-hunt">IRAN @ 2000 and Beyond lecture series, opening address, W. Herbert Hunt, 18 May 2000, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref>. Iran is a founding member of the UN, NAM, OIC, OPEC, ECO, and seeks to join the SCO.
As a a regional power.<ref name="parliament">parliament.uk, "Select Committee on Foreign Affairs, Eighth Report, Iran, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref>, Iran occupies an important position in international energy security and world economy due to its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas.<ref>BBC News — Iran's growing regional influence.</ref>The country is known for its independent stances in the global arena.
The name Iran is a cognate of Aryan, and literally means "Land of the Aryans".<ref name="hinduwebsite">hinduwebsite.com, "The Concepts of Hinduism — Arya", retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="wiscper">imp.lss.wisc.edu, "Iranian Languages", Political, Social, Scientific, Literary & Artistic (Monthly) Oct 2000, No. 171, Dr. Suzan Kaviri, pp. 26–7, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="about.com">"Iran — The Ancient Name of Iran", N.S. Gill, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> "Land of Kindness" (سرزمين مهر) is used occasionally as an alternative name for Iran in Persian literature and Iranian media.<ref>[1]</ref><ref>Ali Akbar Sadeghi, Iran the Land of Love ISBN 964 Goya Publishing Company 2003</ref>
Etymology
Modèle:Seealso The term Iran (ایران) in modern Persian derives from the Proto-Iranian term Aryānām first attested in Zoroastrianism's Avesta tradition.<ref name="Bailey_Arya">Modèle:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Ariya- and Airiia- are also attested as an ethnic designator in Achaemenid inscriptions. The term Ērān from Middle Persian Ērān, Pahlavi ʼyrʼn, is found at the inscription that accompanies the investiture relief of Ardashir I at Naqsh-e Rustam.<ref name="MacKenzie">Modèle:Cite encyclopedia</ref> In this inscription, the king's appellation in Middle Persian contains the term ērān (Pahlavi: ʼryʼn), while in the Parthian language inscription that accompanies it, Iran is mentioned as aryān. In Ardashir's time ērān retained this meaning, denoting the people rather than the state.
Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ērān to refer to the Iranian peoples, the use of ērān to refer to the empire is also attested by the early Sassanid period. An inscription of Shapur I, Ardashir's son and immediate successor, apparently "includes in Ērān regions such as Armenia and the Caucasus which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians."<ref name="Gignoux_Aneran">Modèle:Cite encyclopedia</ref> In Kartir's inscriptions the high priest includes the same regions in his list of provinces of the antonymic Anērān.<ref name="Gignoux_Aneran" /> Both ērān and aryān comes from the Proto-Iranian term Aryānām, (Land) of the (Iranian) Aryas. The word and concept of Airyanem Vaejah is present in the name of the country Iran (Lit. Land of the Aryans) where Iran (Ērān), is modern-Persian of the word Aryānā.
Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the official name of the country is "Islamic Republic of Iran."
History
Early history and the Median and Achaemenian Empires (3200 BCE – 330 BCE)
Dozens of pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the 4th millennium BCE<ref name="xinhuaciv">Xinhua, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iran-daily">Iran Daily, "Panorama", 3 Mar 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iranian.ws">Iranian.ws, "Archaeologists: Modern civilization began in Iran based on new evidence", 12 Aug 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref>, centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby Mesopotamia.<ref name="Iranian pottery in the Oriental Institute"> Oriental Institute , University of Chicago ~~~~—
. "Iranian Pottery"
. Retrieved on 2006-04-29. </ref>
The Indo-Iranian culture probably originated in Central Asia. The Andronovo culture is strongly suggested as the candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture ca. 2000 BCE. Proto-Iranians first emerged following the separation of Indo-Iranians, and are traced to the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia.<ref name="Panshin"> "The Paleolithic Indo-Europeans" — Panshin.com (retrieved 4 June 2006)</ref> Aryan, (Proto-Iranian) tribes arrived in the Iranian plateau in the third and second millennium BCE, probably in more than one wave of emigration. Further separation (due to migration) of Proto-Iranians, into an "Eastern" and a "Western" group, is attested in the form of Avestan, an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of Zoroastrian Avesta. And Old Persian, which appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets, seals of the Achaemenid era (c. 600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in present-day Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Egypt.
Nomadic Iranian tribes settled across the Iranian plateau and by the 1st millennium BCE, Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians populated the western part, while Cimmerians, Sarmatians and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea. The Iranian Pashtuns and Baloch began to settle on the eastern edge, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern India and in to what is now Balochistan. Others, such as the Scythian tribes spread as far west as the Balkans and as far east as Xinjiang.
The establishing of the Median dynasty (728–550 BCE) culminated in the first Iranian Empire. The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, the largest of its day, until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians leading to the Achaemenid Empire (648–330 BCE), and further unification between peoples and cultures. After Cyrus's death, his son Cambyses continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, Darius was declared king (ruled 522–486 BCE). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers.
Under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point.<ref> Hooker , Richard
(1996)
. The Persians
. Retrieved on 2006-08-20. </ref> The borders of the Persian empire stretched from the Indus and Oxus Rivers in the East to the Mediterranean Sea in the West, extending through Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and Egypt.
In 499BCE, Athens lent support to a revolt in Miletus which resulted in the sacking of Sardis. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against Greece known as the Greco-Persian Wars which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC. During the Greco-Persian wars Persia conquered Thrace, Macedonia, then most of the Greek mainland, and razed Athens in 480BCE. But after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw. Fighting ended with the peace of Callias in 449BCE.
The Achaemenid's greatest achievement was the empire itself. The Persian Empire was "a paragon of religious and cultural tolerance". The rules and ethics emanating from Zorasters teachings were strictly followed by the Achaemenids who introduced and adopted policies based on human rights, equality and banning of slavery. Zoroastrianism spread unimposed during the time of the Achaemenids and through contacts with the exiled Jewish people in Babylon freed by Cyrus, Zoroastrian concepts further propagated and influenced into other Abrahamic religions. The Golden Age of Athens marked by Aristotle, Plato and Socrates also came about during the Achaemenid period while their contacts with Persia and the Near East abounded. The peace, tranquility, security and prosperity that were afforded to the people of the Near East and Southeastern Europe proved to be a rare historical occurrence, an unparalleled period where commerce prospered, and the standard of living for all people of the region improved.<ref name="vohuman">vohuman.org, "Historical perspective on Zoroastrianism", Reproduced from Âtaš-è Dorün — The Fire Within, Jamshid Soroush Soroushian Memorial Volume II, 1st Books Library, Bloomington, IN, 2003, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref>
Alexander of Macedon invaded Achaemenid territory in 334 BCE, defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE. He left the annexed territory in 328-327.In each of the former Achaemenid territories he installed his own officers as caretakers, which led to friction and ultimately to the partitioning of the former empire after Alexander's death. A reunification would not occur until 700 years later, under the Sassanids (see below). Unlike the diadochic Seleucids and the succeeding Arsacids, who used a vassalary system, the Sassanids — like the Achaemenids — had a system of governors (MP: shahrab) personally appointed by the Emperor and directed by the central government. The new empire led by Alexander became the first, of other, later, foreign ruled Iranian empires that came to promote a Persianate society.
Third Iranian Empire: Parthian Empire (248 BCE – 224 CE)
Parthia was led by the Arsacid dynasty (اشکانیان Ashkâniân), who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late third century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 150 BCE and 224 CE. These were the third native dynasty of ancient Iran (Persia) and lasted five centuries. After the conquests of Media, Assyria, Babylonia and Elam, the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were Greek, and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed. An interesting detail is coinage: legends were written in the Greek alphabet, a practice that continued until the 2nd century CE, when local knowledge of the language was in decline and few people knew how to read or write the Greek alphabet.
During Parthian, and later Sassanid era, trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Indian subcontinent, and Rome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. Parthian remains display classically Greek influences in some instances and retain their oriental mode in others, a clear expression of "the cultural diversity that characterized Parthian art and life".<ref>Persians: Masters of Empire, 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.134</ref> The Parthians were innovators of many architecture designs such as that of Ctesiphon, which bears resemblance to, and might have influenced, European Romanesque architecture.<ref>Persians: Masters of Empire, 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.138</ref><ref>"Even the architecture of the Christian church, with its hallowed chancel seems inspired by the designs of Mithraic temples". Abbas Milani. Lost Wisdom. 2004. Mage Publishers. p.13. ISBN 0934211906</ref>
Fourth Iranian Empire: Sassanid Empire (224–651 CE)
The end of the Parthian Empire came in 224 CE, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by Ardashir I, one of the empire's vassals. Ardashir I then went on to create the Sassanid Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily.
The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, referring to it as Erânshahr or Iranshahr, Image:Eranshahr.svg , "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. of Iranians), with their capital at Ctesiphon.<ref>Garthwaite, Gene R., The Persians, p. 2</ref>
During their reign, Sassanid battles with the Roman Empire caused such pessimism in Rome that the historian Cassius Dio wrote: Modèle:Cquote<ref>Arthur Cotterell, From Aristotle to Zoroaster: An a to Z Companion to the Classical World. 1998. ISBN 0684855968, p.344–345</ref>
The Romans suffered repeated losses particularly by Ardashir I, Shapur I, and Shapur II.<ref>Lorentz, John H. Historical Dictionary of Iran. Asian Historical Dictionaries; No.16. 1995. ISBN 9780810829947, p.189</ref>
Under the Sassanids, Persia expanded relations with China, the arts, music, and architecture greatly flourished, and centers such as the School of Nisibis and Academy of Gundishapur became world renowned centers of science and scholarship.
After roughly six hundred years of confrontation and rivalry with the Roman Empire, raids from the Arab peninsula began attacking the Sassanin and Byzantine frontiers in which a war-exhausted Persia was defeated in the Battle of al-Qâdisiyah, paving way for the Islamic conquest of Persia.
From the fall of the Sassanid Dynasty to the Safavid Empire (652–1501 CE)
After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Persia was annexed into the Arab Umayyad Caliphate. But the Islamization of Iran was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of Persian literature, philosophy, medicine and art became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization. Inheriting a heritage of thousands of years of civilization, and being at the "crossroads of the major cultural highways",<ref>Caheb C., Cambridge History of Iran, Tribes, Cities and Social Organization, vol. 4, p305–328</ref> contributed to Persia emerging as what culminated into the "Islamic Golden Age".
It was the Persian general Abu Moslem, who expelled the Umayyads from Damascus and helped the Abbasid caliphs to conquer Baghdad. The Abbasid caliphs frequently chose their "wazirs" (viziers) among Persians, and Persian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. Thus in 822 CE, the governor of Khorasan, Tahir, proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of Tahirids. And by the Samanid era, Persia's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.<ref>Bosworth C. E., Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, p.90</ref>
Attempts of Arabization thus never succeeded in Iran, and movements such as the Shuubiyah became catalysts for Persians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders. The cultural revival of the post-Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of Persian national identity. The resulting cultural movement reached its peak during the ninth and tenth centuries. The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the Persian language, the language of the Persians and the official language of Iran to the present day. Ferdowsi, Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important figure in maintaining the Persian language.
Before the conquest, Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient Indo-Iranian roots, were considerably influenced by Zoroasters teachings. The Persians had been mainly Zoroastrian, however, there were also large and thriving Christian and Jewish communities. The newly converted Iranian Muslims projected many of their own Persian moral and ethical values that predates the advent of Islam, while recognizing Islam as their religion and the prophet's son in law, Ali, as an enduring symbol of justice.
After an interval of silence Persians remained Persians and Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam. Culturally, politically, and religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of scientific and cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a significant contribution. Persian Islam Islam-i Ajam was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, as well as to India and beyond. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna<ref>Iran in History</ref>. Iranian philosophy after the Islamic conquest, is characterized by different interactions with the Old Iranian philosophy, the Greek philosophy and with the development of Islamic philosophy. The Illumination School and the Transcendent Philosophy are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia.
The movement continued well into the eleventh century, when Mahmud-a Ghaznavi founded a vast empire, with its capital at Isfahan and Ghazna. Their successors, the Seljuks, asserted their domination from the Mediterranean Sea to Central Asia. As with their predecessors, the divan of the empire was in the hands of Persian viziers, who founded the Nizamiyya. During this period, hundreds of scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during the Renaissance.<ref>Kühnel E., in Zeittschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesell, Vol. CVI (1956)</ref>
In 1218, the eastern Khwarazmid provinces of Transoxiana and Khorasan suffered a devastating invasion by Genghis Khan. During this period more than half of Persia's population were killed,<ref>The memoirs of Edward Teller, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory "Science and Technology Review". July/August 1998. Link: [2]</ref> turning the streets of Persian cities like Neishabur into "rivers of blood", as the severed heads of men, women, and children were "neatly stacked into carefully constructed pyramids around which the carcasses of the city's dogs and cats were placed".<ref>Mackey, S.. The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.69.</ref> Between 1220 and 1260, the total population of Persia may had dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine.<ref>Battuta's Travels: Part Three — Persia and Iraq</ref> In a letter to King Louis IX of France, Holaku, one of the Genghis Khan's grandsons, alone took responsibility for 200,000 deaths in his raids of Persia and the Caliphate.<ref>Mackey, p. 70</ref> He was followed by yet another conqueror, Tamerlane, who established his capital in Samarkand.<ref>Old World Contacts/Armies/Tamerlane</ref>
The waves of devastation prevented many cities such as Neishabur from reaching their pre-invasion population levels until the twentieth century, eight centuries later.<ref>Mackey, S. The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.69.</ref>
But both Hulagu, Timur, and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of that which they had conquered, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.<ref>Bertold Spuler. The Muslim World. Vol. I The Age of the Caliphs. Leiden. E.J. Brill. 1960 ISBN 0-685-23328-6 p.29</ref>
The birth of modern Iran: Rise of the Safavid Empire (1501–1920)
Persia's first encompassing Shi'a Islamic state was established under the Safavid dynasty in 1501 by Shah Ismail I. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major political power and promoted the flow of bilateral state contacts. The Safavid peak was during the rule of "Shah Abbas The Great".<ref name="islamic1600">"The Islamic World to 1600", The Applied History Research Group, The University of Calgary, 1998, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> The Shah swiftly moved to defeat the Uzbeks, Ottomans, and Portuguese, bringing a flow of prosperity into Iranian cities.
The Safavids moved their capital from Tabriz to Qazvin and then to Isfahan where their patronage for the arts propelled Persia into one of its most aesthetically productive eras. Under their rule, the state became highly centralized, the first attempts to modernize the military were made, and even a distinct style of architecture developed.
The defeat of Shah Sultan Hossein by Afghan rebels marked the start of the downfall of the Safavid era in 1722. One year later the last Safavid monarch lost his throne in 1735, Nader Shah successfully drove out the Afghan rebels from Isfahan and established the Afsharid dynasty. He then staged an incursion into India in 1738 securing the Peacock throne, Koh-i-Noor, and Darya-ye Noor among other royal treasures. His rule did not last long however, and he was assassinated in 1747.
The Mashhad based Afshar dynasty was succeeded by the Zand dynasty in 1750, founded by Karim Khan, who established his capital at Shiraz. His rule brought a period of relative peace and renewed prosperity. The Afshar dynasty lasted three generations, until Aga Muhammad Khan executed Lotf Ali Khan (assisted by the young Zand king's betrayal by his chancellor), and founded his new capital in Tehran, marking the dawn of the Qajar dynasty in 1794. The capable Qajar chancellor Amir Kabir established Iran's first modern college system, among other modernizing reforms. Mohammad Khan Qajars successors however gradually transformed Iran into an arena for the rising colonial powers of Imperial Russia and the British Empire, which wielded great political influence in Tehran under the subsequent Qajarid kings. Yet in spite of The Great Game, Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighboring states in the region.
Persia suffered several wars with Imperial Russia during the Qajar era, resulting in Persia losing almost half of its territories to Imperial Russia and the British Empire via the treaties of Gulistan, Turkmenchay, and Akhal. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to various protests, which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in Persia's constitutional revolution establishing the nation's first parliament in 1906, within a constitutional monarchy.
Famine in 1870-1871 is believed to have caused the death of 2 million people.<ref>Persian Famine Donation Lists</ref> During the 1917-1919 famine as much as 1/4 of the population living in the north of Persia died.<ref>Global Connections . Timeline</ref>
From the Pahlavi era to the Iranian Revolution (1921–1979)
With the rise of modernization and encroachment of stronger Western powers in the late nineteenth century came the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911. Reformers hoped the constitution would strengthen Iran against Imperial Russia and Britain by centralizing and modernizing it. Ultimately the constitution became law, but its provisions were seldom followed during most of its history.
In 1921, an army officer Reza Khan of Mazandarani and Persian descent (known as Reza Shah after assuming the throne) staged a coup against the weakened Qajar dynasty. An autocrat and supporter of modernization, Reza Shah initiated the development of modern industry, railroads, and establishment of a national education system. Reza Shah sought to balance the influence of Russia and Britain by seeking out assistance and technology from European powers traditionally not involved in Iranian affairs, but when World War II started his closeness to Germany alarmed allied powers Russia and Britain, Germany's enemies.
In summer of 1941 Britain and the USSR invaded Iran to prevent Iran from allying with the Axis powers. The Allies occupied Iran, securing a supply line to Russia, Iran's petroleum infrastructure, and forced the Shah to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1951, a nationalist politician, Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh rose to prominence in Iran and was elected Prime Minister. As Prime Minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran by nationalizing the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later British Petroleum, BP) which controlled the country's oil reserves. In response, Britain embargoed Iranian oil and began plotting to depose Mossadegh. Members of the British Intelligence Service invited the United States to join them, convincing U.S. President Eisenhower that Mossadegh was reliant on the Tudeh (Communist) Party to stay in power. In 1953, President Eisenhower authorized Operation Ajax, and the CIA took the lead in overthrowing Mossadegh and supporting a U.S.-friendly monarch; and for which the U.S. Government apologized in 2000.<ref name="cnntrans">CNN Transcripts, "U.S. Comes Clean About The Coup In Iran", 19 Apr 2000, retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref>
The CIA faced many setbacks, but the covert operation soon went into full swing, conducted from the U.S. Embassy in Tehran under the leadership of Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. Iranians were hired to protest Mossadegh and fight pro-Mossadegh demonstrators. Anti- and pro-monarchy protestors violently clashed in the streets, leaving almost three hundred dead. The operation was successful in triggering a coup, and within days, pro-Shah tanks stormed the capital and bombarded the Prime Minister's residence. Mossadegh surrendered, and was arrested on 19 August 1953. He was tried for treason, and sentenced to three years in prison.
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi returned to power greatly strengthened and his rule became increasingly autocratic in the following years. With strong support from the U.S. and UK, the Shah further modernized Iranian industry, but simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, SAVAK. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an active critic of the Shah's White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General Hassan Pakravan. Khomeini was sent first to Turkey, then to Iraq and finally to France. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah.
Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War (1979–198Image:Cool.gif
The Iranian Revolution (also known as the Islamic Revolution)<ref name = "Chamber">Islamic Revolution, Iran Chamber.</ref><ref name = "Encarta">Islamic Revolution of Iran, MS Encarta.</ref><ref>The Shah and the Ayatollah: Iranian Mythology and Islamic Revolution (Hardcover), ISBN, by Fereydoun Hoveyda, brother of Amir Abbas Hoveyda.</ref> transformed Iran from a monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic.<ref name = "Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref>
The revolution began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the Shah.<ref>The Iranian Revolution.</ref> After strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, the Shah fled the country in January 1979. On February 1, 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran, enthusiastically greeted by millions of Iranians.<ref name = "Britannica Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini, Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref> The Pahlavi dynasty collapsed ten days later on February 11 when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979 when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so.<ref>Iran Islamic Republic, Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref> In December 1979 the country approved a theocratic constitution, whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country. The speed and success of the revolution surprised many throughout the world,<ref>Amuzegar, The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution, (1991), p.4, 9–12</ref> as it had not been precipitated by a military defeat, a financial crisis, or a peasant rebellion.<ref>Arjomand, Turban (198Image:Cool.gif, p. 191.</ref> It produced profound change at great speed.<ref>Amuzegar, Jahangir, The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution, SUNY Press, p.10</ref> It overthrew a regime thought to be heavily protected by a lavishly financed army and security services.<ref>Harney, Priest (199Image:Cool.gif, p. 2.</ref><ref>Abrahamian Iran (1982), p. 496.</ref> And it replaced a monarchy with a theocracy based on Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (or velayat-e faqih). Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, it ultimately resulted in an Islamic Republic "under the guidance of an 80-year-old exiled religious scholar from Qom," Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.<ref name = "Benard">Benard, "The Government of God" (1984), p. 18.</ref>
Iran's relations with the United States became deeply antagonistic during the revolution. On November 4 1979, Iranian students seized US embassy personnel, labeling the embassy a "den of spies."<ref name="carterpbs">PBS, American Experience, Jimmy Carter, "444 Days: America Reacts", retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> They accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. While the student ringleaders had not asked for permission from Khomeini to seize the embassy, Khomeini nonetheless supported the embassy takeover after hearing of its success.<ref>Guests of the Ayatollah: The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam, Mark Bowden, p. 127</ref> While most of the female and African American hostages were released within the first months,<ref>Guests of the Ayatollah: The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam, Mark Bowden, p. 200</ref> the remaining fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days. This is often considered a violation of the long-standing principle of international law that diplomats are immune from arrest (diplomatic immunity). The students demanded the handover of the Shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Subsequently attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate or rescue were unsuccessful until January 1981 when the Algiers declaration was agreed upon. The U.S. promised (among other things) in the accord to release Iranian assets that had been frozen, but as of 2007 those assets still remain frozen.[citation needed]Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He also sought to expand Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was Khuzestan which not only boasted a substantial Arab population, but rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the United Arab Emirates, the islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On September 22, 1980 the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran-Iraq War. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.
Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.
Tens of thousands of Iranian civilians and military personnel were killed when Iraq used chemical weapons in its warfare. Iraq was financially backed by Egypt, the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact states, the United States (beginning in 1983), France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Brazil, and the People's Republic of China (which also sold weapons to Iran).
There were more than 100,000 Iranian victims<ref name="r1">Center for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran. (مرکز مطالعات و تحقیقات جنگ)</ref> of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian human wave attacks; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.<ref> News
. FAS
.</ref><ref>http://www.fas.org/cw/intro.htm</ref><ref>http://www.antiwar.com/glantz/?articleid=2804</ref><ref>NTI Chemical profile of Iran</ref>
Government and politics
The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution. The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for delineation and supervision of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran". The Supreme Leader is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the Council of Guardians are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.<ref name=loc"> Federal Research Division , Library of Congress
. "Iran — The Constitution"
. Retrieved on 2006-04-14. </ref> The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties.
After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority. The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution. The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-one ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence. Iran's current president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, was elected in a run-off poll in the 2005 presidential elections. His term expires in 2009.
The current legislature of Iran is a unicameral body. Before the Iranian Revolution, the legislature was bicameral, but the upper house was removed under the new constitution. The Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami (Islamic Consultative Assembly) comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Council of Guardians. The Council of Guardians comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the Parliament from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary. The Council interprets the constitution and may veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.
The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.
The Supreme Leader appoints the head of Iran's Judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.
The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the Council of Guardians determines candidates' eligibility. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.
Finally, Local City Councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.
Iran's foreign relations are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the United Nations, except for Israel, which Iran does not recognize, and the United States since the Iranian Revolution. <ref>Key Events in Iran Since 1921</ref> The United Nations Security Council imposed international sanctions on Iran in December 2006 for not suspending its uranium enrichment programme having been instructed to do so after being assessed as failing to meet Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty safeguard obligations. Despite the U.N. security council resolutions, Iran has in practice faced a wide variety of U.S. imposed international sanctions since 1979.<ref>Surrounded: Seeing the World from Iran’s Point of View, p21</ref>
Provinces and counties
Iran is divided into 30 provinces (ostān), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties (shahrestān), and subdivided into districts (bakhsh) and sub-districts (dehestān).
The map does not show the southern islands of Hormozgan (#20 listed below):
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Major cities
Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.<ref name="payvand2"> Payvand
. "Iran: Focus on reverse migration"
. Retrieved on 2006-04-17. </ref> The United Nations predicts that by 2030 the urban population will form 80% of the overall population.[citation needed] Most of the internal migrants have settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom. The listed populations are from the 2006/2007 (1385 AP) census.<ref>Iranian National Portal of Statistics</ref>
Tehran (population 7,705,036) Tehran is the capital and largest city of Iran and like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution. Tehran is the hub of the country's communication and transport network. The city has numerous large museums, art centers, palace complexes and cultural centers and host 45% of Iran's industries.
Mashhad (population 2,410,800) Mashhad (also spelt Mashad, literally "The place of martyrdom"), is located 850 kilometers (500 miles) east of Tehran, and is one of the holiest Shi'a cities in the world as it is the site of the shrine of Imam Reza, 8th Shia Imam. It is the second largest city with a population of 2.8 million at the center of the province of Razavi Khorasan. It's the center of tourism in Iran and between 15 and 20 million pilgrims go to the Imam Reza's shrine every year.<ref>Religious Tourism Potentials Rich</ref><ref>http://www.sacredsites.com/middle_east/iran/mashad.htm</ref>
Isfahan (population 1,583,609) Isfahan or Eşfahān, located about 340 km south of Tehran, is the capital of Isfahan Province and Iran's third largest city.
The Naghsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The city also contains a wide variety of Islamic architectural sites ranging from the eleventh to the nineteenth century.
Tabriz (population 1,378,935) Tabriz is the largest city in north-western Iran and is the capital of East Azarbaijan Province. Tabriz is situated north of the volcanic cone of Sahand south of the Eynali mountain.
Karaj (population 1,377,450) Karaj is located in Tehran province and is situated 20 km west of Tehran, at the foot of Alborz mountains, however the city is increasingly becoming an extension of the metropolitan Tehran.
Shiraz (population 1,204,882) Shiraz is the capital of Fārs Province and is located in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains. Shiraz is known as the city of poetry, wine and carpet production and flowers (such as roses). It is also famous for its importance in the history of Iran. It has a moderate climate and has been a regional trade center for more than a thousand years.
Ahvaz (population 969,843) The city of Ahvaz, is the capital of the Iranian province of Khūzestān. It is built on the banks of the Karun River and is situated in the middle of Khūzestān Province. The city has an average elevation of 20 meters above sea level.
Qom (population 951,91Image:Cool.gif Qom (also known as Q'um or Kom) lies Modèle:Convert/mi by road south-west of Tehran and is the capital of Qom Province and is built on the banks of the Qom (River) and is considered to be a holy city in Shi`a Islam, as it is the site of the shrine of Fatema Mæ'sume, sister of Imam `Ali ibn Musa Rida (Persian Imam Reza, 789–816 CE). The city is the largest center for Shi'a scholarship in the world, and is a significant destination of pilgrimage.
Geography and climate
Modèle:Seealso Iran is the eighteenth largest country in the world after Libya and before Mongolia;<ref>World Statistics by Area</ref> Its area roughly equals the size of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined, about one-sixth the size of the United States or slightly smaller, in land mass, than the state of Alaska.<ref>Iran-Location, size, and extent</ref><ref>Frequently Asked Questions About Alaska</ref> Its borders are with Azerbaijan (432 km/268 mi) and Armenia (35 km/22 mi) to the northwest; the Caspian Sea to the north; Turkmenistan (992 km/616 mi) to the northeast; Pakistan (909 km/565 mi) and Afghanistan (936 km/582 mi) to the east; Turkey (499 km/310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km/906 mi) to the west; and finally the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south. Iran's area is 1,648,000 km² (approximately 636,300 mi² )
Most of Iran is situated on the Iranian Plateau with the exception of the coast of the Caspian Sea and Khuzestan. Iran is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros and Alborz Mountains; the latter contains Iran's highest point, Mount Damavand at 5,604 m (18,386 ft), which is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the Hindu Kush. The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins like the saline Dasht-e Kavir, Iran's largest desert, located in the north-central portion of the country, and the Dasht-e Lut, in the east, as well as some salt lakes. This is because the mountain ranges are too high for rain clouds to reach these regions. Except for some scattered oases, such as Tabas, these deserts are uninhabited.
The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab (or the Arvand Rūd) river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Sea of Oman.
Iran's climate is mostly arid or semiarid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84 °F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (27 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (67 in) in the western part. To the west, settlements in the Zagros Mountains basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters, sub-freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (eight in) of rain and have occasional desert. Average summer temperatures exceed 38 °C (100 °F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (five to fourteen inches).
Economy
Modèle:Seealso Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.<ref>http://www.traveldocs.com/ir/economy.htm</ref> Its economic infrastructure has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by inflation and unemployment.<ref> World Bank: Iran’s Economic Indices Improving
. Iran Daily (2007-07-08)
. Retrieved on 2007-07-08. </ref> In the early twenty-first century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture. About 45 percent of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31 percent came from taxes and fees. Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14 percent in the period 2000–2004. In 2006 the GDP was estimated at $193.5 billion ($599.2 billion at PPP), or $2,440 per capita ($8,700 at PPP).<ref name="cia" /> Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semi-developed.
The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Thanks to the construction of many dams throughout the country in recent years, large-scale irrigation schemes, and the wider production of export-based agricultural items like dates, flowers, and pistachios, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the 1990s. Although successive years of severe drought in 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 have held back output growth substantially, agriculture remains one of the largest employers, accounting for 22% of all jobs according to the 1991 census.
Iran's major commercial partners are China, Germany, South Korea, France, Japan, Russia and Italy. Since the late 1990s, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including Syria, India, Cuba, Venezuela, and South Africa. Iran is also expanding its trade ties with Turkey and Pakistan and shares with its partners the common goal of creating a single economic market in West and Central Asia, much like the European Union called ECO. Iran also expects to attract billions of dollars of foreign investment by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced restrictions and duties on imports, and free-trade zones in Chabahar, Qeshm and Kish Island.
The current administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. It is attempting to do this by investing revenues in areas like automobile manufacturing, aerospace industries, consumer electronics, petrochemicals and nuclear technology. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry.<ref>List of Iranian Nanotechnology companies</ref> The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to large-scale state subsidies, totaling more than $40 billion per year, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline.<ref>http://www.payvand.com/news/07/jan/1295.html "Ahmadinejad's Achilles Heel: The Iranian Economy"</ref>
Energy
Iran ranks second in the world in natural gas reserves and third in oil reserves.<ref>http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Iran/Background.html</ref> In 2005, Iran spent US$4 billion dollars on fuel imports, because of contraband and inefficient domestic use.<ref>"U.S. targets Iran's vulnerable oil"</ref> Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day in 2005, compared with the peak of 6 million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry infrastructure was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory wells were drilled in 2005.
In 2004, a large share of Iran’s natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal- and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75 percent was based on natural gas, 18 percent on oil, and 7 percent on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant is to come online in 2009. Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8 percent per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants and by adding hydroelectric, and nuclear power generating capacity. Iran’s first nuclear power plant at Bushehr was not online by 2007.<ref>http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf</ref>
Industrial production
Modèle:Seealso The authorities so as the private sector have put in the past 15 years an emphasis on the local production of domestic-consumption oriented goods such as home appliances, cars, agricultural products, pharmaceutical, etc. Today, Iran possesses a good manufacturing industry, despite restrictions imposed by foreign countries. However, all nationalized industries such as the bonyads have often been managed in the worse way, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Today, the government is trying to privatize these industries, such as Damavand Mineral water company or some down stream industries of the National Iranian Oil Company, and despite some successes, there are still several problems to be overcome such as the lagging corruption with the public sector (and therefore, nationalized industries) and lack of competitiveness.
Globally, Iran has leading manufacture industry in the fields of car-manufacture and transportations, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology and petrochemicals.
Tourism
- See also: Modèle:Wikitravel
The tourist industry declined dramatically during the war with Iraq in the 1980s but has subsequently revived. The majority of the 300,000 tourist visas granted in 2003 were obtained by Asian Muslims, who presumably intended to visit important pilgrimage sites in Mashhad and Qom. About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004; most came from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while a small share came from the countries of the European Union and North America. Several organized tours from Germany, France, and other European countries come to Iran annually to visit archaeological sites and monuments. The government reported that in 2004 some 4 million tourists, including over 2 million Iranians on vacation, spent nearly US$2 billion in Iran, an increase of 10 percent over 2003. However, in the early 2000s the industry still faced serious limitations in infrastructure, communications, regulatory norms, and personnel training.<ref>http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf</ref>
Iran currently ranks 68th in tourism revenues worldwide. Iran with attractive natural and historical sites is rated among the 10 most touristic countries in the world. Close to 1.8 percent of national employment is generated in the tourism sector which is slated to increase to 10 percent in the next five years.<ref>http://www.farsinet.com/travel2iran/</ref> Iranian hospitality is one of the unique and distinctive features of its people.
Demography
Iran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and ethnic backgrounds cemented by the Persian culture. Persians, the founders of Ancient Persia, constitute the majority of the population. Seventy percent of present-day Iranians are Iranic peoples, native speakers of Indo-European languages who are descended from the Aryan (Indo-Iranians) tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran in the second millennium BCE. The majority of the population speaks one of the Iranian languages, in addition to the official language, Persian. The main ethnic groups are Persians (51%), Azeris (24%), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8%), Kurds (7%), Arabs (3%), Baluchi (2%), Lurs (2%), Turkmens (2%), Laks, Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, Tats, Pashtuns, Mandaeans, Gypsies, Brahuis, Hazare and others (1%).<ref name="cia" />
Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the twentieth century, reaching about 70 million by 2006. In recent years, however, Iran's birth rate has dropped significantly.<ref name="una"> Asia-Pacific Population Journal , United Nations
. "A New Direction in Population Policy and Family Planning in the Islamic Republic of Iran"
. Retrieved on 2006-04-14. </ref> Studies show that Iran's rate of population growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes, by the year 2050, above 90 million.<ref name="bureau"> Census Bureau , Government of the U.S.A.
. "IDB Summary Demographic Data for Iran"
. Retrieved on 2006-04-14. , predicts 82 million in 2050, underestimating today's population by 8%</ref><ref name="payvand"> Iran News , Payvand.com
. "Iran's population growth rate falls to 1.5 percent: UNFP"
. Retrieved on 2006-10-18. </ref> More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and the literacy rate is 79%.<ref name="cia" />
The number of Iranian citizens abroad is estimated at some four million people who emigrated to North America, Europe, and Australia, mostly during the Iran-Iraq war in the 1980s. Iran also hosts one of the largest refugee population in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq. Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the UNHCR and Afghan officials for their repatriation.<ref name="bbcb"> United Nations , UNHCR
. "Tripartite meeting on returns to Afghanistan"
. Retrieved on 2006-04-14. </ref>
Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the Shi'a branch of Islam, the official state religion, and about 8% belong to the Sunni branch, mainly Kurds and Iran's Balochi Sunni. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, including Bahá'ís, Mandeans, Hindus, Sikhs, Yezidis, Yarsanis, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians.<ref name="cia"/> The latter three minority religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the Majles (Parliament). However the Bahá'í Faith, Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution of Bahá'ís has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment.<ref name="fdih1"> International Federation for Human Rights
(2003-08-01) . Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran . fdih.org
. Retrieved on 2007-03-19. </ref><ref name="ihrdc"> Iran Human Rights Documentation Center
(2007) . A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Bahá'ís of Iran . Iran Human Rights Documentation Center
. Retrieved on 2007-03-19. </ref> Currently, the Islamic Republic of Iran is noted for significant human rights violations, despite efforts by human right activists, writers, NGOs and some political parties. Human rights violations include governmental impunity, restricted freedom of speech, gender inequality, treatment of homosexuals, execution of minors, and in some cases torture.<ref>(en) Traduction du code civil iranien par le cabinet Alavi and Associates</ref>
According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to social security that covers retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services. This is covered by public revenues and income derived from public contributions. The World Health Organization in the last report on health systems ranks Iran's performance on health level 58th, and its overall health system performance 93rd among the world's nations.<ref> WHO , World Health Organisation
. The World Health Report 2000
. Retrieved on 2006-10-12. </ref>
Military
Modèle:See also The Islamic Republic of Iran has two kinds of armed forces: the regular forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army, Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, Islamic Republic of Iran Navy and the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), totalling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totalling around 900,000 trained troops.<ref>IISS Military Balance 2006, Routledge for the IISS, London, 2006, p.187</ref>
Iran also has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service; GlobalSecurity.org estimates Iran could mobilize "up to 1 million men". This would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world.<ref>Niruyeh Moghavemat Basij Mobilisation Resistance Force </ref>
Iran's military capabilities are kept largely secret. Since 1992, it has produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, guided missiles, submarines, and fighter planes.<ref>Iran Launches Production of Stealth Sub</ref> In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Fajr-3 (MIRV), Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3 missiles, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
The Fajr-3 (MIRV) is currently Iran's most advanced ballistic missile. It is a domestically-developed and produced liquid fuel missile with an unknown range. The IRIS solid-fuelled missile is a program which is supposed to be Iran's first missile to bring satellites into orbit. In 2005, Iran's military spending represented 3.3% of the GDP or $91 per capita, the lowest figure of the Persian Gulf nations.<ref>Iran's defense spending 'a fraction of Persian Gulf neighbors'</ref> Iran's military doctrine is to defend its territorial integrity only.<ref>Iranian Constitution, Chapter X Foreign Policy</ref>
Culture
Iran, or Persia, as a historical entity, dates to the time of the Achaemenids. Daily life in modern Iran is closely interwoven with Shia Islam and the country's art, literature, and architecture are an ever-present reminder of its deep national tradition and of a broader literary culture.<ref name="Iran in Britannica">Modèle:Cite encyclopedia </ref> Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the Middle East and Central Asia, with Persian considered the language of intellectuals during much of the second millennium CE, and the language of religion and the populace before that.
The Iranian New Year (Norouz) is an ancient tradition celebrated on March 21 to mark the beginning of spring in Iran, Afghanistan, Albania, Georgia, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan.<ref>http://endicottstudio.typepad.com/endicott_redux/2007/03/index.html</ref> and also by Kurds in Turkey and Iraq.<ref>http://www.zoroastrian.org/articles/nowruz.htm</ref> Norouz was nominated as one of UNESCO's Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2004.<ref name="culture"> Iran News , Payvand.com
. "Nowrouz Vital Meeting to be Held in Tehran"
. Retrieved on 2006-04-14. </ref>
The Sassanid era was an important and influential historical periods in Iran Their cultural influenced Roman civilization considerably<ref>J. B. Bury, p.109.</ref> and so influencing as far as Western Europe,<ref>Durant.</ref> Africa,<ref>Transoxiana 04: Sassanids in Africa</ref> China and India<ref>Sarfaraz, pp.329–330.</ref> and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.<ref>Iransaga: The art of Sassanids</ref> This influence carried forward to the Islamic world. Most of what later became known as Islamic learning, such as philology, literature, jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine, architecture and the sciences were some of the practises taken from the Sassanid Persians in to the broader Muslim world.<ref>Iran - A country study</ref><ref>History of Islamic Science 5</ref>
After the Arab invasion Islamic rituals have penetrated in the Iranian culture. The most noticeable one of them is commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali. Every year in Day of Ashura most of Iranians even Armenians and Zoroastrians participate in mourning for the martyrs of battle of Karbala. The commemoration of Karbala has permeated all of Persian culture and finds expression in poetry, music, and the solemn Shia view of the world.<ref>Hamshahri, 3 Esfand 1383</ref>
The cuisine of Iran is diverse, with each province featuring dishes, as well as culinary traditions and styles, distinct to their region. Iranian food is not spicy. Most meals consist of a large serving of seasoned rice and an accompanying course, typically consists of meat, poultry, or fish. Herbs are used frequently. Onions and garlic are normally used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form.
Iranian cinema has thrived in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years. One of the best-known directors is Abbas Kiarostami. The Media of Iran is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. State censorship is often brought upon films which do not meet approval. The Internet has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of bloggers.<ref>Freedom in Farsi blogs</ref> Women today compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country and increasingly continue to play pivotal roles in society.
Language and Literature
Many Languages have originated from Iran such as Mazandarani and Gilaki but Persian is the most used language. Persian is a tongue belonging to the Aryan or Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The oldest records in Old Persian date back to the great Persian Empire of the 6th century BCE.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Since then it has changed significantly, being greatly influenced by Arabic after the conquest of Persia. In the late 8th century the Persian language was highly Arabized and in Arabic script. This caused a movement supporting the revival of Persian. An important event of this revival was the writing of the Shahname by Ferdowsi (Persian: Epic of Kings), Iran's national epic, entirely in native Persian. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part responsible for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language.
Persian beside Arabic has been a medium for literary and scientific contributions to the Islamic world especially in Anatolia, central Asia and Indian sub-continent.
Poetry is a very important part of Persian culture. Poetry is used in many classical works, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. For example about half of Avicenna's medical writings are known to be versified. Iran has produced a number of famous poets, however only a few names such as Rumi and Omar Khayyám have surfaced among western popular readership, even though the likes of Hafez and Saadi are considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. The books of famous poets have been translated into western languages since 1634. An example of Persian poetic influence is the poem below which is inscribed on the entrance of United Nations' Hall of Nations.
بنى آدم اعضاء يک پیکرند
که در آفرينش ز يک گوهرند
چو عضوى بدرد آورد روزگار
دگر عضوها را نماند قرار
"Of one Essence is the human race
thus has Creation put the base,
One Limb impacted is sufficient
For all Others to feel the Mace."—Saadi
Art
The Iranian Cultural Continent is home to one of the richest art heritages in world history and encompasses many disciplines including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking and stone masonry. The art of carpet weaving in Iran has its roots in the culture and customs of its people and their instinctive feelings. Weavers mix elegant patterns with a myriad of colors.
Persians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry, and astronomy in architecture and also have extraordinary skills in making massive domes which can be seen frequently in the structure of bazaars and mosques. The main building types of classical Iranian architecture are the mosque and the palace. Iran, beside being home to a large number of art houses and galleries also hold one of the largest and valuable jewel collections in the world as Iranian Crown Jewels.
Iran ranks 7th among countries in the world with the most archeological architectural ruins and attractions from antiquity as recognized by UNESCO.<ref>Bustling bazaars and ancient sights, parched deserts and snowcapped mountains, awesome architecture and simple hospitality</ref> Fifteen of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites are creations of Iranian architecture and the mausoleum of Maussollos was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Science and technology
Modèle:See also Science in Iran, as the country itself, has a considerable history. From the Qanat to the Yakhchal, to the windmill. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of astronomy, nature, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī is sometimes considered (along with Diophantus) as the "father of Algebra". The isolation of ethanol (alcohol) as a pure compound was first achieved by Persian alchemists. Throughout the Middle Ages, the natural philosophy and mathematics of the ancient Greeks and Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. During this period, Persia became a center for the manufacture of scientific instruments, retaining its reputation for quality well into the nineteenth century.
Iran strives to revive the golden age of Persian science. The country has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by China.<ref>http://experts.about.com/q/Economics-2301/economic.htm</ref>
Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, Iranian scientists remain highly productive in several experimental fields as pharmacology, pharmaceutical chemistry, organic chemistry, and polymer chemistry. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the Compact Muon Solenoid, a detector for CERN's Large Hadron Collider due to come online in May 2008.
In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics is a UNESCO chair in biology,<ref>Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics</ref> and in late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research center in Isfahan.<ref>[3] The first successfully cloned animal in Iran</ref>
The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran's current facilities includes several research reactors, a uranium mine, an almost complete commercial nuclear reactor, and uranium processing facilities that include a uranium enrichment plant. The Iranian Space Agency launched its first reconnaissance satellite named Sina-1 in 2006, and a "space rocket" in 2007,<ref>Rocket launch</ref> which aimed at improving science and research for university students.<ref>Iran Says 'Space Rocket' for Research. NewsMax.com, Feb. 26, 2007.</ref>
Iranian scientists are a significant portion of the international scientific community. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser, along with American physicist William R. Bennett, Jr. In 1965, fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi Zadeh<ref>cs.berkeley.edu</ref>. Iranian cardiologist, Tofy Mussivand invented the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart, and developed it further afterwards. HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar and introduced to the medical community, thereby furthering research and treatment of Diabetes. Iranian physics is especially strong in string theory, with many papers being published in Iran.<ref>Nature journal: Reza Mansouri explains the emergence of world class string theorists in Iran</ref> Iranian-American string theorist Cumrun Vafa proposed the Vafa-Witten theorem together with Edward Witten. The KPZ equation in theoretical physics was named after Mehran Kardar, a notable Iranian physicist.
Sports
With two thirds of Iran's population under the age of 25, sports constitutes a highly active portion of Iran's society, both traditional and modern. Iran hence was the birthplace of sports such as polo,<ref>news.bb.co.uk</ref> backgammon,<ref name="Persian-journal">"Iran's Burnt City Throws up World’s Oldest Backgammon", Persian Journal, December 4, 2004. Retrieved on August 5, 2006.</ref> and Varzesh-e Pahlavani.
Freestyle Wrestling is traditionally referred to as Iran's national sport. Former WWF champion Iron Sheik wrestled as an amateur in Iran before moving to the United States but today, the most popular sport in Iran is football (soccer), with national team being a World Cup finalist three times, having won the Asian Cup on three occasions and was the first country in the Middle East to host the Asian Games. Iran is home to several unique skiing resorts,<ref>bloomberg.com</ref> with the Tochal resort being the world's fifth-highest ski resort (3,730 m at its highest station) situated only fifteen minutes away from Tehran. Being a mountainous country, Iran offers enthusiasts abundant challenges for hiking, rock climbing,<ref>http://www.rockclimbing.com/routes/Asia/Iran/</ref> and mountain climbing.<ref>http://www.mountainzone.ir/</ref><ref>Mountaineering in Iran</ref><ref>Local Woman Feared Dead In Iran Mountain Hike</ref>
Women are also active in sports, primarily in volleyball and badminton and even rallying. Female drivers participate in national rally tournaments, such as the famous driver Laleh Seddigh.
References
Further reading
- Benjamin Walker, Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran, Arya Press, Calcutta, 1950.
- Michael Barker, Catalyst for Iranian Resistance: U.S. “democracy promoters” and regime change in Iran, Znet, 18 December 2006.
External links
- Government
- Official website of the President of Iran
- The blog of the President of Iran
- Modèle:Fa icon Official website of the Council of Guardians of Iran
- Modèle:Fa icon Official website of the Majlis (Legislature) of Iran
- Official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- Official website of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran
- BBC guide to political power structure in Iran
- Official website of the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization
- Modèle:Fa icon Official website of Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting
- Other
- Iran Map with details Iran Map and Iran Major Cites Maps
- Aryo.ir A wide Range of Classified Photos From Different Provinces of Iran
- Footage showing ethnic and religious groups in Iran
- Modèle:Wikitravel
- Slideshow: Iran, from Damavand to Ispahan
- Encyclopaedia Britannica's Country Page — "Iran"
- Open Directory Project — Iran directory category
- BBC News interactive maps detailing Iran's people, land and infrastructure
- Uncovering Iran season onBBC Radio 4
- Iran an article by Encyclopædia Iranica
- Iran travel information and pictures
- Iran Cultural Heritage Organization
- Iran An article by Encyclopedia Britannica Online
- Ancient Iran An article by Encyclopedia Britannica Online
- Photos from Iran: Livius.
- Iranian news and media
- List of Iranian news and media from the Open Directory Project
- Yahoo! News Full Coverage Iran Yahoo headline links
- Guardian section about Iran
- PRESS TV — 24 hour news channel in English
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