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Benjamin Franklin

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Modèle:Pp-semi-vandalism Modèle:Otheruses1 Modèle:Infobox Governor www.historynet.com/exploration/science_engineering/3036996.html Benjamin Franklin: America's Inventor] from HistoryNet.com</ref> and as a diplomat during the American Revolution, he secured the French alliance that helped to make independence possible.//www.historynet.com/exploration/science_engineering/3036996.html Benjamin Franklin: America's Inventor] from HistoryNet.com</ref> and as a diplomat during the American Revolution, he secured the French alliance that helped to make independence possible.

Franklin was famous for his curiosity, his writings (popular, political and scientific), his inventions, and his diversity of interests. As a leader of the Enlightenment, he gained the recognition of scientists and intellectuals across Europe. An agent in London before the Revolution, and Minister to France during the war, he, more than anyone else, defined the new nation in the minds of Europe. His success in securing French military and financial aid was a great contributor to the American victory over Britain. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, the iron furnace stove (also known as the Franklin stove), a carriage odometer and a musical instrument known as the armonica. He was an early proponent of colonial unity. Many historians hail him as the "First American."

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Franklin learned printing from his older brother and became a newspaper editor, printer, and merchant in Philadelphia, becoming very wealthy. In 1718, at the age of 12, Benjamin Franklin began in apprentice service to his half-brother, James, in the printing business and continued until he was twenty-one. In the printing business, he improved in spelling and punctuation. In his autobiography, he accounts that he schooled himself in composition because it was not taught in reading or writing schools at that time. Here he provides another piece of documentation that writing was defined as penmanship. Franklin attributed his improvement in composition to writing down his arguments for friendly debates and his father’s suggestions to style, organization and insightfulness. Another contributing factor toward improving his compositions proved to be comparing his notes, recreations, and reorganization to models of good writing. His successful approaches to self-instruction in compositions led him to design a school in Philadelphia in 1740 where he advocated that students write legibly, read the “best” writers, model their own writing after the “best” writers, form their own style by writing letters to others, write abstracts and retellings of what they read in their own words. In 1749, Franklin voiced his idea in his Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth where he stressed the importance of using writing as a tool for thinking, increasing comprehension through retelling, and communicating with others. This sounds familiar to what we stress today as goals in writing.

He spent many years in England and published the famous Poor Richard's Almanack and the Pennsylvania Gazette. He formed both the first public lending library and fire department in America as well as the Junto, a political discussion club. During this period he wrote in favor of paper money, against mercantilist policies such as the Iron Act of 1750, and also drafted, in 1754, the Albany Plan of Union, which would have created a continental legislature; demonstrating how early he conceived of the colonies as being naturally one political unit.

Franklin became a national hero in America when he spearheaded the effort to have Parliament repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a major figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. From 1775 to 1776, Franklin was Postmaster General under the Continental Congress and from 1785 to 1788 was President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania. Toward the end of his life, he became one of the most prominent abolitionists.

www.benfranklin300.org/etc_trivia.htm The Benjamin Franklin Tercentary.] Franklin Trivia.</ref> he is generally recognized as a polymath.//www.benfranklin300.org/etc_trivia.htm The Benjamin Franklin Tercentary.] Franklin Trivia.</ref> he is generally recognized as a polymath.

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Biography

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Ancestry

Franklin's father, Josiah Franklin, was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23, 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith and farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15, 1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher and his wife Mary Morrill, a former indentured servant. A descendant of the Folgers, J. A. Folger, founded Folgers Coffee in the 19th century.

Ben Franklin's great-great-grandmother was Alice Elmy from Diss on the Suffolk / Norfolk border in England.

Around 1677, Josiah married Anne Child at Ecton, and over the next few years had three children. These half-siblings of Benjamin Franklin included Elizabeth (March 2, 1678), Samuel (May 16, 1681), and Hannah (May 25, 1683).

Sometime during the second half of 1683, the Franklins left England for Boston, Massachusetts. They had several more children in Boston, including Josiah Jr. (August 23, 1685), Ann (January 5, 1687), Joseph (February 5, 1688), and Joseph (June 30, 1689) (the first Joseph died soon after birth).

Josiah's first wife, Anne, died in Boston on July 9, 1689. He was married to Abiah Folger on November 25, 1689 in the Old South Meeting House of Boston by Samuel Willard.

Josiah and Abiah had the following children: John (December 7, 1690), Peter (November 22,1692), Mary (September 26, 1694), James (February 4, 1697), Sarah (July 9, 1699), Ebenezer (September 20, 1701), Thomas (December 7, 1703), Benjamin (January 17, 1706), Lydia (August 8, 1708), and Jane (March 27, 1712).

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Early life

www.alumni.upenn.edu/club/benbday/birthdate.html The Story of Ben's Birthdate.] University of Pennsylvania, alumni.</ref> and baptized at Old South Meeting House. His father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a maker of candles and soap, whose second wife, Abiah Folger, was Benjamin's mother. Josiah's marriages produced 17 children; Benjamin was the fifteenth child and youngest son. Josiah wanted Ben to attend school with the clergy but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended Boston Latin School but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although "his parents talked of the church as a career" for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He then worked for his father for a time and at 12 he became an apprentice to his brother James, a printer. When Ben was 15, James created the New England Courant, the first truly independent newspaper in the colonies. When denied the option to write to the paper, Franklin invented the pseudonym of Mrs. Silence Dogood, who was ostensibly a middle-aged widow. The letters were published in the paper and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the Courant's readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Ben when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin left his apprenticeship without permission and in so doing became a fugitive.<ref name="vandoren">Van Doren, Carl. Benjamin Franklin. (1938). Penguin reprint 1991.</ref>//www.alumni.upenn.edu/club/benbday/birthdate.html The Story of Ben's Birthdate.] University of Pennsylvania, alumni.</ref> and baptized at Old South Meeting House. His father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a maker of candles and soap, whose second wife, Abiah Folger, was Benjamin's mother. Josiah's marriages produced 17 children; Benjamin was the fifteenth child and youngest son. Josiah wanted Ben to attend school with the clergy but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended Boston Latin School but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although "his parents talked of the church as a career" for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He then worked for his father for a time and at 12 he became an apprentice to his brother James, a printer. When Ben was 15, James created the New England Courant, the first truly independent newspaper in the colonies. When denied the option to write to the paper, Franklin invented the pseudonym of Mrs. Silence Dogood, who was ostensibly a middle-aged widow. The letters were published in the paper and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the Courant's readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Ben when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin left his apprenticeship without permission and in so doing became a fugitive.<ref name="vandoren">Van Doren, Carl. Benjamin Franklin. (1938). Penguin reprint 1991.</ref>

At age 17, Franklin ran away to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived he worked in several printer shops around town. However, he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects. After a few months, while working in a printing house, Franklin was convinced by Pennsylvania Governor Sir William Keith to go to London, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Finding Keith's promises of backing a newspaper to be empty, Franklin worked as a compositor in a printer's shop in what is now the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great in the Smithfield area of London. Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of a merchant named Thomas Denham, who gave Franklin a position as clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in Denham's merchant business.<ref name="vandoren"/>

In 1727, Benjamin Franklin, 21, created the Junto, a group of "like minded aspiring artisans and tradesmen who hoped to improve themselves while they improved their community." The Junto was a discussion group for issues of the day; it subsequently gave rise to many organizations in Philadelphia.

Reading was a great pastime of the Junto, but books were rare and expensive. The members created a library, and initially pooled their own books together. This did not work, however, and Franklin initiated the idea of a subscription library, where the members pooled their monetary resources to buy books. This idea was the birth of the Library Company, with the charter of the Library Company of Philadelphia created in 1731 by Franklin.

Originally, the books were kept in the homes of the first librarians, but in 1739 the collection was moved to the second floor of the State House of Pennsylvania, now known as Independence Hall. In 1791, a new building was built specifically for the library. The Library Company flourished with no competition and gained many priceless collections from bibliophiles such as James Logan and his physician brother William. The Library Company is now a great scholarly and research library with 500,000 rare books, pamphlets, and broadsides, more than 160,000 manuscripts, and 75,000 graphic items.

Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade. By 1730, Franklin had set up a printing house of his own and had contrived to become the publisher of a newspaper called The Pennsylvania Gazette. The Gazette gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations. Over time, his commentary, together with a great deal of savvy about cultivating a positive image of an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect; though even after Franklin had achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he habitually signed his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer.'<ref name="vandoren"/>

freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/franklin_b/franklin_b.html Freemasonry Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon website.]</ref> That same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of James Anderson's Constitutions of the Free-Masons. Franklin remained a Freemason throughout the rest of his life.<ref>Van Horne, John C. "The History and Collections of the Library Company of Philadelphia," The Magazine Antiques, v. 170. no. 2: 58-65 (1971).</ref><ref>Lemay, J.A. Leo. "Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790)," Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. ed. H.C.G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford: OUP, 2004).</ref>//freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/franklin_b/franklin_b.html Freemasonry Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon website.]</ref> That same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of James Anderson's Constitutions of the Free-Masons. Franklin remained a Freemason throughout the rest of his life.<ref>Van Horne, John C. "The History and Collections of the Library Company of Philadelphia," The Magazine Antiques, v. 170. no. 2: 58-65 (1971).</ref><ref>Lemay, J.A. Leo. "Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790)," Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. ed. H.C.G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford: OUP, 2004).</ref>

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Deborah Read

In 1724, while a boarder in the Read home, Franklin had courted Deborah Read before going to London at Governor Keith's request. At that time, Miss Read's mother was wary of allowing her daughter to wed a seventeen-year old who was on his way to London. Her own husband having recently died, Mrs. Read declined Franklin's offer of marriage.<ref name="vandoren"/>

While Franklin was in London, Deborah married a man named John Rodgers. This proved to be a regrettable decision. Rodgers shortly avoided his debts and prosecution by fleeing to Barbados, leaving Deborah behind. With Rodgers' fate unknown, and bigamy illegal, Deborah was not free to formally remarry.

In 1730, Franklin acknowledged an illegitimate son named William, who would eventually become the last Loyalist governor of New Jersey. While the identity of William's mother remains unknown, perhaps the responsibility of an infant child gave Franklin a reason to take up residence with Deborah Read. William was raised in the Franklin household but eventually broke with his father over the treatment of the colonies at the hands of the crown. However, he was not above using his father's fame to enhance his own standing.

Franklin established a common-law marriage with Deborah Read on September 1, 1730. In addition to raising William, Benjamin and Deborah Franklin had two children together. The first, Francis Folger Franklin, born October 1732, died of smallpox in 1736. Sarah Franklin, nicknamed Sally, was born in 1743. She eventually married Richard Bache, had seven children, and cared for her father in his old age.

Deborah's fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe, despite his repeated requests.

Either by his son or his daughter, Benjamin Franklin is a direct ascendant of Jack Coleman.

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Success as author

In 1733, Franklin began to publish the famous Poor Richard's Almanack (with content both original and borrowed) under the name Richard Saunders, on which much of his popular reputation is based. Everybody who cared to know, knew it was Benjamin Franklin but it was a different name. So when he published as Poor Richard he could say things that he didn't want to say as Benjamin Franklin. It was as if this "other side" of Benjamin Franklin was just dying to speak his mind. "Poor Richard's Proverbs," adages from this almanac, such as "A penny saved is twopence dear" (often misquoted as "A penny saved is a penny earned"), "Fish and visitors stink in three days" remain common quotations in the modern world. Wisdom in folk society meant the ability to provide an apt adage for any occasion, and Franklin's readers became well prepared. He sold about ten thousand copies per year (a circulation equal to nearly three million today).<ref name="vandoren"/>

In 1758, the year in which he ceased writing for the Almanack, he printed Father Abraham's Sermon. Franklin's autobiography, published after his death, has become one of the classics of the genre.

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Inventions and scientific inquiries

www.ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography/page55.htm}}</ref> His inventions also included social innovations, such as paying forward.//www.ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography/page55.htm}}</ref> His inventions also included social innovations, such as paying forward.

www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/library/readings/gulf/gulf.html 1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations' .] NOAA Ocean Explorer.</ref>//www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/library/readings/gulf/gulf.html 1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations' .] NOAA Ocean Explorer.</ref>

In 1743, Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society to help scientific men discuss their discoveries and theories. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life, in between bouts of politics and moneymaking.<ref name="vandoren"/>

Image:BenFranklin Waterspout 1806.jpg
An illustration from Franklin's paper on "Water-spouts and Whirlwinds."

In 1748, he retired from printing and went into other businesses. He created a partnership with his foreman, David Hall, which provided Franklin with half of the shop's profits for 18 years. This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made discoveries that gave him a reputation with the educated throughout Europe and especially in France.

scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/FranklinBenjamin.html Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790).] Science World, from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography.</ref> and he was the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge.<ref>Conservation of Charge. </ref> In 1750, he published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a kite in a storm that appeared capable of becoming a lightning storm. On May 10, 1752, Thomas-François Dalibard of France conducted Franklin's experiment (using a 40-foot-tall iron rod instead of a kite) and extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On June 15, Franklin may have possibly conducted his famous kite experiment in Philadelphia and also successfully extracted sparks from a cloud, although there are theories that suggest he never performed the experiment. Franklin's experiment was not written up until Joseph Priestley's 1767 History and Present Status of Electricity; the evidence shows that Franklin was insulated (not in a conducting path, since he would have been in danger of electrocution in the event of a lightning strike). (Others, such as Prof. Georg Wilhelm Richmann of Saint Petersburg, Russia, were electrocuted during the months following Franklin's experiment.) In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of electrical ground. If Franklin did perform this experiment, he did not do it in the way that is often described, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, as it would have been fatal.<ref>Franklin's Kite. Museum of Science, Boston.</ref> Instead, he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, which implied that lightning was electrical.//scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/FranklinBenjamin.html Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790).] Science World, from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography.</ref> and he was the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge.<ref>Conservation of Charge. </ref> In 1750, he published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a kite in a storm that appeared capable of becoming a lightning storm. On May 10, 1752, Thomas-François Dalibard of France conducted Franklin's experiment (using a 40-foot-tall iron rod instead of a kite) and extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On June 15, Franklin may have possibly conducted his famous kite experiment in Philadelphia and also successfully extracted sparks from a cloud, although there are theories that suggest he never performed the experiment. Franklin's experiment was not written up until Joseph Priestley's 1767 History and Present Status of Electricity; the evidence shows that Franklin was insulated (not in a conducting path, since he would have been in danger of electrocution in the event of a lightning strike). (Others, such as Prof. Georg Wilhelm Richmann of Saint Petersburg, Russia, were electrocuted during the months following Franklin's experiment.) In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of electrical ground. If Franklin did perform this experiment, he did not do it in the way that is often described, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, as it would have been fatal.<ref>Franklin's Kite. Museum of Science, Boston.</ref> Instead, he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, which implied that lightning was electrical.

On October 19 in a letter to England explaining directions for repeating the experiment, Franklin wrote:

"When rain has wet the kite twine so that it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will find it streams out plentifully from the key at the approach of your knuckle, and with this key a phial, or Leiden jar, maybe charged: and from electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all other electric experiments [may be] performed which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass globe or tube; and therefore the sameness of the electrical matter with that of lightening completely demonstrated."<ref>Wolf, A., History of Science, Technology, and Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century. New York, 1939. p.232</ref>

www.physicstoday.org/vol-59/iss-1/p42.html Benjamin Franklin and Lightning Rods.] Physics Today. January 2006.</ref>//www.physicstoday.org/vol-59/iss-1/p42.html Benjamin Franklin and Lightning Rods.] Physics Today. January 2006.</ref>

In recognition of his work with electricity, Franklin received the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1753, and in 1756 he became one of the few eighteenth century Americans to be elected as a Fellow of the Society. The cgs unit of electric charge has been named after him: one franklin (Fr) is equal to one statcoulomb.

www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/almanac/arc2003/alm03oct.htm Eclipsed By Storm.] The Weather Doctor. 1 October 2003.</ref>//www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/almanac/arc2003/alm03oct.htm Eclipsed By Storm.] The Weather Doctor. 1 October 2003.</ref>

Franklin noted a principle of refrigeration by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one. To understand this phenomenon more clearly Franklin conducted experiments. On one warm day in Cambridge, England, in 1758, Franklin and fellow scientist John Hadley experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury thermometer with ether and using bellows to evaporate the ether. With each subsequent evaporation, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °F (-14 °C). Another thermometer showed the room temperature to be constant at 65 °F (18 °C). In his letter "Cooling by Evaporation," Franklin noted that “one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer’s day."

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Musical endeavors

www.finkenbeiner.com/gh.html The Glassharmonica.] GFI Scientific.</ref>//www.finkenbeiner.com/gh.html The Glassharmonica.] GFI Scientific.</ref>

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Public life

In 1736, Franklin created the Union Fire Company, the first volunteer fire fighting company in America. In the same year, he printed a new currency for New Jersey based on innovative anti-counterfeiting techniques which he had devised.

As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs. In 1743, he set forth a scheme for The Academy and College of Philadelphia. He was appointed president of the academy in November 13, 1749, and it opened on August 13, 1751. At its first commencement, on May 17, 1757, seven men graduated; six with a Bachelor of Arts and one as Master of Arts. It was later merged with the University of the State of Pennsylvania to become the University of Pennsylvania.

www.gophila.com/Go/PressRoom/pressreleases/ben300/Resume_Ben_Franklin_Fact_Sheet.aspx Benjamin Franklin resume.] Official Visitor Site for Greater Philadelphia.</ref>//www.gophila.com/Go/PressRoom/pressreleases/ben300/Resume_Ben_Franklin_Fact_Sheet.aspx Benjamin Franklin resume.] Official Visitor Site for Greater Philadelphia.</ref>

In 1751, Franklin and Dr. Thomas Bond obtained a charter from the Pennsylvania legislature to establish a hospital. Pennsylvania Hospital was the first hospital in what was to become the United States of America.

Image:Joinordie.png
Join, or Die: This political cartoon by Franklin urged the colonies to join together during the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War).

Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics and rapidly progressed. In October 1748, he was selected as a councilman, in June 1749 he became a Justice of the Peace for Philadelphia, and in 1751 he was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly. On August 10, 1753, Franklin was appointed joint deputy postmaster-general of North America. His most notable service in domestic politics was his reform of the postal system, but his fame as a statesman rests chiefly on his subsequent diplomatic services in connection with the relations of the colonies with Great Britain, and later with France.<ref name="vandoren"/>

In 1754, he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the Albany Congress. This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the Board of Trade in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the French. Franklin proposed a broad Plan of Union for the colonies. While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution.

In 1757, he was sent to England by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to protest against the political influence of the Penn family, the proprietors of the colony. He remained there for five years, striving to end the proprietors' prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly, and their exemption from paying taxes on their land. His lack of influential allies in Whitehall led to the failure of this mission. In 1759, the University of St Andrews awarded him an Honorary Doctor of Laws degree. In 1762, Oxford University awarded Franklin an honorary doctorate for his scientific accomplishments and from then on he went by "Doctor Franklin." He also managed to secure a post for his illegitimate son, William Franklin, as Colonial Governor of New Jersey.<ref name="vandoren"/>

During his stay in London, Franklin became involved in radical politics. He was a member of the Club of Honest Whigs, alongside thinkers such as Richard Price.

In 1756, Franklin became a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (now Royal Society of Arts or RSA, which had been founded in 1754), whose early meetings took place in coffee shops in London's Covent Garden district, close to Franklin's main residence in Craven Street (the only one of his residences to survive and which opened to the public as the Benjamin Franklin House museum on January 17 2006). After his return to America, Franklin became the Society's Corresponding Member and remained closely connected with the Society. The RSA instituted a Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Franklin's birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA.

During his stays at Craven Street in London between 1757 and 1775, Franklin developed a close friendship with his landlady, Margaret Stevenson and her circle of friends and relations, in particular her daughter Mary, who was more often known as Polly.

In 1759, he visited Edinburgh with his son, and recalled his conversations there as "the densest happiness of my life."<ref>Buchan, James. Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind. HarperCollins Publishers. 2003. p.2</ref>

He also joined the influential Birmingham based Lunar Society with whom he regularly corresponded and on occasion, visited in Birmingham in the West Midlands.

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Coming of Revolution

www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/massacre.htm "A Narrative of the Late Massacres..."] reprinted on The History Carper.</ref>//www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/massacre.htm "A Narrative of the Late Massacres..."] reprinted on The History Carper.</ref>

Many of the Paxton Boys' supporters were Scotch-Irish Presbyterians and German Reformed or Lutherans from rural western Pennsylvania, leading to claims that Franklin was biased in favor of the urban Quaker elite of the East. Because of these accusations, and other attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the 1764 Assembly elections. This defeat, however, allowed him the opportunity to return to London, where he sealed his reputation as a pro-American radical.<ref name="isaacson">Isaacson, Walter. Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. Simon & Schuster. 2003.</ref>

In 1764, Franklin was dispatched to England as an agent for the colony, this time to petition King George III to establish central British control of Pennsylvania, away from its hereditary "proprietors." During this visit he also became colonial agent for Georgia, New Jersey and Massachusetts. In London, he actively opposed the proposed Stamp Act, despite accusations by opponents in America that he had been complicit in its creation. His principled opposition to the Stamp Act, and later to the Townshend Acts of 1767, led to the end of his dream of a career in the British Government and his alliance with proponents of colonial independence. It also led to an irreconcilable break with his son William, who remained loyal to the British.<ref name="isaacson"/>

Image:Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg
Franklin in 1783, an engraving from a painting by Joseph Duplessis.

In September 1767, Franklin visited Paris with his usual traveling partner, Sir John Pringle. News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in France. His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists and politicians, and also to King Louis XV.<ref name="isaacson"/>

www.omniglot.com/writing/franklin.htm Benjamin Franklin's Phonetic Alphabet.] Omniglot.com.</ref>//www.omniglot.com/writing/franklin.htm Benjamin Franklin's Phonetic Alphabet.] Omniglot.com.</ref>

www.ushistory.org/franklin/biography/chap05.htm Life of Benjamin Franklin.] US History.org.</ref> While touring Ireland, he was moved by the level of poverty he saw. Ireland's economy was affected by the same trade regulations and laws of England which governed America. Franklin feared that America could suffer the same affects should Britain’s colonial exploitation continue.<ref>Benjamin Franklin. PBS.org.</ref>//www.ushistory.org/franklin/biography/chap05.htm Life of Benjamin Franklin.] US History.org.</ref> While touring Ireland, he was moved by the level of poverty he saw. Ireland's economy was affected by the same trade regulations and laws of England which governed America. Franklin feared that America could suffer the same affects should Britain’s colonial exploitation continue.<ref>Benjamin Franklin. PBS.org.</ref>

www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/pa-1773.htm reprinted on The History Carper.]</ref> He also published an Abridgment of the Book of Common Prayer, anonymously with Francis Dashwood. Among the unusual features of this work is a funeral service reduced to six minutes in length, "to preserve the health and lives of the living."<ref name="isaacson"/>//www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/pa-1773.htm reprinted on The History Carper.]</ref> He also published an Abridgment of the Book of Common Prayer, anonymously with Francis Dashwood. Among the unusual features of this work is a funeral service reduced to six minutes in length, "to preserve the health and lives of the living."<ref name="isaacson"/>

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Hutchinson Letters

Franklin obtained private letters of Massachusetts governor Thomas Hutchinson and lieutenant governor Andrew Oliver which proved they were encouraging London to crack down on the rights of the Bostonians. Franklin sent them to America where they escalated the tensions. Franklin now appeared to the British as the fomenter of serious trouble. Hopes for a peaceful solution ended as he was systematically ridiculed and humiliated by the Privy Council. He left London in March 1775.<ref name="isaacson"/>

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Declaration of Independence

www.americanrevolution.org/deckey.html Key to Declaration] American Revolution.org.</ref>]]//www.americanrevolution.org/deckey.html Key to Declaration] American Revolution.org.</ref>]]

By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on May 5, the American Revolution had begun with fighting at Lexington and Concord. The New England militia had trapped the main British army in Boston. The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose Franklin as their delegate to the Second Continental Congress. In 1776, he was a member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence and made several small changes to Thomas Jefferson's draft.<ref name="isaacson"/>

At the signing, he is quoted as having replied to a comment by Hancock that they must all hang together: "Yes, we must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately,"<ref>{{citation books.google.com/books?id=MLAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408&lpg=PA408&dq=franklin+%22shall+all+hang+separately%22+sparks&source=web&ots=9tZqaocy0E&sig=JjqhJqfqvWnOqZ-FTAxGfdwaKPM//books.google.com/books?id=MLAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408&lpg=PA408&dq=franklin+%22shall+all+hang+separately%22+sparks&source=web&ots=9tZqaocy0E&sig=JjqhJqfqvWnOqZ-FTAxGfdwaKPM |title=|title=The Life of Benjamin Franklin: Containing the Autobiography, with Notes and a Continuation |first=Jared |last=Sparks |authorlink = Jared Sparks |pages=408 |publisher=Whittemore, Niles and Hall |location=Boston |date=1856 |accessdate=2007-12-16 }}</ref>

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Ambassador to France: 1776-1785

In December 1776, Franklin was dispatched to France as commissioner for the United States. He lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of Passy, donated by Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont who supported the United States. Franklin remained in France until 1785, and was such a favorite of French society that it became fashionable for wealthy French families to decorate their parlors with a painting of him. He was highly flirtatious in the French manner (but did not have any actual affairs). He conducted the affairs of his country towards the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance in 1778 and negotiating the Treaty of Paris (1783). During his stay in France, Benjamin Franklin as a freemason was Grand Master of the Lodge Les Neuf Sœurs from 1779 until 1781.

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Constitutional Convention

www.pbs.org/benfranklin/l3_citizen_abolitionist.html Citizen Ben, Abolitionist.] PBS.org.</ref>//www.pbs.org/benfranklin/l3_citizen_abolitionist.html Citizen Ben, Abolitionist.] PBS.org.</ref>

In 1787, Franklin served as a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention. He held an honorific position and seldom engaged in debate. He is the only Founding Father who is a signatory of all four of the major documents of the founding of the United States: the Declaration of Independence, the Treaty of Paris, the Treaty of Alliance with France, and the United States Constitution.

In 1787, a group of prominent ministers in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, proposed the foundation of a new college to be named in Franklin's honor. Franklin donated £200 towards the development of Franklin College, which is now called Franklin & Marshall College.

Between 1771 and 1788, he finished his autobiography. While it was at first addressed to his son, it was later completed for the benefit of mankind at the request of a friend.

In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that attempted to convince his readers of the importance of the abolition of slavery and of the integration of Africans into American society. These writings included:

In 1790, Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition. Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society and its president, Benjamin Franklin.

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President of Pennsylvania

Special balloting conducted 18 November 1785 unanimously elected Franklin the sixth President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, replacing John Dickinson. The office of President of Pennsylvania was analogous to the modern position of Governor. It is not clear why Dickinson needed to be replaced with less than two weeks remaining before the regular election. Franklin held that office for slightly over three years, longer than any other, and served the Constitutional limit of three full terms. Shortly after his initial election he was re-elected to a full term on 29 October 1785, and again in the fall of 1786 and on 31 October 1787. Officially, his term concluded on 5 November 1788, but there is some question regarding the de facto end of his term, suggesting that the aging Franklin may not have been actively involved in the day-to-day operation of the Council toward the end of his time in office.

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Virtue, religion and personal beliefs

Image:Franklin bust - jean-antoine houdon.JPG
A bust of Franklin by Jean-Antoine Houdon.

Like the other advocates of republicanism, Franklin emphasized that the new republic could survive only if the people were virtuous in the sense of attention to civic duty and rejection of corruption. All his life he had been exploring the role of civic and personal virtue, as expressed in Poor Richard's aphorisms.

www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography.] Chapter IV. reprinted on USGenNet.org.</ref> He went on to attack Christian principles of free will and morality in a 1725 pamphlet, A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain.<ref>reprinted on The History Carper.</ref> He consistently attacked religious dogma, arguing that morality was more dependent upon virtue and benevolent actions than on strict obedience to religious orthodoxy: "I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me."<ref name="belief">Franklin Defines His God. BeliefNet.com.</ref>//www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography.] Chapter IV. reprinted on USGenNet.org.</ref> He went on to attack Christian principles of free will and morality in a 1725 pamphlet, A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain.<ref>reprinted on The History Carper.</ref> He consistently attacked religious dogma, arguing that morality was more dependent upon virtue and benevolent actions than on strict obedience to religious orthodoxy: "I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me."<ref name="belief">Franklin Defines His God. BeliefNet.com.</ref>

A few years later, Franklin repudiated his 1725 pamphlet as an embarrassing "erratum." In 1790, just about a month before he died, Franklin wrote the following in a letter to Ezra Stiles, president of Yale, who had asked him his views on religion...: Modèle:Cquote2

Like most Enlightenment intellectuals, Franklin separated virtue, morality, and faith from organized religion, although he felt that if religion in general grew weaker, morality, virtue, and society in general would also decline. Thus he wrote Thomas Paine, "If men are so wicked with religion, what would they be if without it." According to David Morgan,<ref>Morgan, David T. Benjamin Franklin: Champion of Generic Religion. The Historian. 62#4 2000. pp 722+</ref> Franklin was a proponent of all religions. He prayed to "Powerful Goodness" and referred to God as the "INFINITE." John Adams noted that Franklin was a mirror in which people saw their own religion: "The Catholics thought him almost a Catholic. The Church of England claimed him as one of them. The Presbyterians thought him half a Presbyterian, and the Friends believed him a wet Quaker." Whatever else Benjamin Franklin was, concludes Morgan, "he was a true champion of generic religion." Ben Franklin was noted to be "the spirit of the Enlightenment."

www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf2/articles.htm reprinted at The History Carper.]</ref> From this, Isaacson compares Franklin's conception of deity to that of strict deists and orthodox Christians. He concludes that unlike most pure deists, Franklin believed that a faith in God should inform our daily actions, but that, like other deists, his faith was devoid of sectarian dogma. Isaacson also discusses Franklin's conception that God had created beings who do interfere in wordly matters, a point that has led some commentators, most notably A. Owen Aldridge, to read Franklin as embracing some sort of polytheism, with a bevy of lesser gods overseeing various realms and planets.//www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf2/articles.htm reprinted at The History Carper.]</ref> From this, Isaacson compares Franklin's conception of deity to that of strict deists and orthodox Christians. He concludes that unlike most pure deists, Franklin believed that a faith in God should inform our daily actions, but that, like other deists, his faith was devoid of sectarian dogma. Isaacson also discusses Franklin's conception that God had created beings who do interfere in wordly matters, a point that has led some commentators, most notably A. Owen Aldridge, to read Franklin as embracing some sort of polytheism, with a bevy of lesser gods overseeing various realms and planets.

www.greatseal.com/committees/firstcomm/index.html First Great Seal Committee – July/August 1776.] Great Seal.com.</ref>//www.greatseal.com/committees/firstcomm/index.html First Great Seal Committee – July/August 1776.] Great Seal.com.</ref>

www.house.gov/forbes/prayer/prayerincongress.htm The Congressional Prayer Caucus.] White House.gov.</ref>//www.house.gov/forbes/prayer/prayerincongress.htm The Congressional Prayer Caucus.] White House.gov.</ref>

www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/hst/biography/TheAutobiographyofBenjaminFranklin/chap28.html World Wide School.com.]</ref> it nevertheless appears that he never formally joined any particular Christian denomination or any other religion.//www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/hst/biography/TheAutobiographyofBenjaminFranklin/chap28.html World Wide School.com.]</ref> it nevertheless appears that he never formally joined any particular Christian denomination or any other religion.

According to the epitaph Franklin wrote for himself at the age of 20, it is clear that he believed in a physical resurrection of the body some time after death. Whether this belief was held throughout his life is unclear.

www.pbs.org/benfranklin/l3_wit_self.html PBS.org - Benjamin Franklin - Wit and Wisdom - Self-Improvement]</ref><ref>University of Delaware - Facts and Fallacies about Benjamin Franklin</ref>//www.pbs.org/benfranklin/l3_wit_self.html PBS.org - Benjamin Franklin - Wit and Wisdom - Self-Improvement]</ref><ref>University of Delaware - Facts and Fallacies about Benjamin Franklin</ref>

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Virtue

Franklin sought to cultivate his character by a plan of thirteen virtues, which he developed at age 20 (in 1726) and continued to practice in some form for the rest of his life. His autobiography (see references below) lists his thirteen virtues as:

  1. "TEMPERANCE. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation."
  2. "SILENCE. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation."
  3. "ORDER. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time."
  4. "RESOLUTION. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve."
  5. "FRUGALITY. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing."
  6. "INDUSTRY. Lose no time; be always employ'd in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions."
  7. "SINCERITY. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly."
  8. "JUSTICE. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty."
  9. "MODERATION. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve."
  10. "CLEANLINESS. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, cloaths, or habitation."
  11. "TRANQUILLITY. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable."
  12. "CHASTITY. Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another's peace or reputation."
  13. "HUMILITY. Imitate Jesus and Socrates."
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Death and legacy

Image:BenjaminFranklinGrave.2005.JPG
The grave of Benjamin Franklin in Christ Church Burial Ground, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/franklin-epitaph.html Benjamin Franklin: In His Own Words.] Library of Congress.</ref> In 1773, when Franklin's work had moved from printing to science and politics, he corresponded with a French scientist on the subject of preserving the dead for later revival by more advanced scientific methods, writing://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/franklin-epitaph.html Benjamin Franklin: In His Own Words.] Library of Congress.</ref> In 1773, when Franklin's work had moved from printing to science and politics, he corresponded with a French scientist on the subject of preserving the dead for later revival by more advanced scientific methods, writing:

www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.05/biotime.html?pg=1&topic=biotime&topic_set=] (Extended excerpt also online [1].)//www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.05/biotime.html?pg=1&topic=biotime&topic_set=] (Extended excerpt also online [2].)

sln.fi.edu/franklin/family/lastwill.html] The Last Will and Testament of Benjamin Franklin.] The Franklin Institute Science Museum.</ref>//sln.fi.edu/franklin/family/lastwill.html] The Last Will and Testament of Benjamin Franklin.] The Franklin Institute Science Museum.</ref>

His death is described in the book The Life of Benjamin Franklin: "...when his pain and difficulty of breathing entirely left him, and his family were flattering themselves with the hopes of his recovery, when an imposthumations, which had formed itself in his lungs, suddenly burst, and discharged a great quantity of matter, which he continued to throw up while he had strength to do it; but, as that failed, the organ of inspiration became gradually oppressed; a calm lethargic state succeeded, and on the 17th of April, 1790, at eleven o'clock at night, he quietly expired, closing a long and useful life of eighty-four years and three months."

www.mathsci.appstate.edu/~sjg/class/1010/wc/finance/franklin1.html Excerpt from Philadelphia Inquirer article by Clark De Leon]</ref>//www.mathsci.appstate.edu/~sjg/class/1010/wc/finance/franklin1.html Excerpt from Philadelphia Inquirer article by Clark De Leon]</ref>

Franklin's likeness is ubiquitous. Since 1928, it has adorned American $100 bills, which are sometimes referred to in slang as "Benjamins" or "Franklins." From 1948 to 1964, Franklin's portrait was on the half dollar. He has appeared on a $50 bill and on several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918. Franklin appears on the $1,000 Series EE Savings bond. The city of Philadelphia contains around 5,000 likenesses of Benjamin Franklin, about half of which are located on the University of Pennsylvania campus. Philadelphia's Benjamin Franklin Parkway (a major thoroughfare) and Benjamin Franklin Bridge (the first major bridge to connect Philadelphia with New Jersey) are named in his honor.

Image:Benjamin Franklin National Memorial.jpg
Memorial marble statue of Ben Franklin

In 1976, as part of a bicentennial celebration, Congress dedicated a 20-foot (6 m) marble statue in Philadelphia's Franklin Institute as the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial. Many of Franklin's personal possessions are also on display at the Institute, one of the few national memorials located on private property.

www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org/site/sections/default.htm Benjamin Franklin House.]</ref> In 1998, workmen restoring the building dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home. The Times reported on February 11, 1998://www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org/site/sections/default.htm Benjamin Franklin House.]</ref> In 1998, workmen restoring the building dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home. The Times reported on February 11, 1998:

Initial estimates are that the bones are about 200 years old and were buried at the time Franklin was living in the house, which was his home from 1757 to 1762 and from 1764 to 1775. Most of the bones show signs of having been dissected, sawn or cut. One skull has been drilled with several holes. Paul Knapman, the Westminster Coroner, said yesterday: "I cannot totally discount the possibility of a crime. There is still a possibility that I may have to hold an inquest."

www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org/site/sections/news/pdf/Issue2.pdf]//www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org/site/sections/news/pdf/Issue2.pdf]

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Exhibitions

"The Princess and the Patriot: Ekaterina Dashkova, Benjamin Franklin and the Age of Enlightenment" exhibition opened in Philadelphia in February 2006 and ran through December 2006. Benjamin Franklin and Dashkova met only once, in Paris in 1781. Franklin was 75 and Dashkova was 37. Franklin invited Dashkova to become the first woman to join the American Philosophical Society and the only woman to be so honored for another 80 years. Later, Dashkova reciprocated by making him the first American member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

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Popular culture

Trivia sections are discouraged under Wikipedia guidelines.
The article could be improved by integrating relevant items and removing inappropriate ones.
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2007)
Image:Usdollar100front.jpg
Franklin on the hundred dollar bill.

Franklin, in his "Poor Richard" persona, helped create popular culture in America. In turn he has been included in many different popular culture media, of which this list is a small, recent sample.

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See also

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References

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Biographies

tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.

  • H. W. Brands. The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (2000) full-length biography
  • Walter Isaacson. Benjamin Franklin: An American Life (2003). full-length biography.
  • Mark Skousen . The Compleated Autobiography by Benjamin Franklin (2005) told in Franklins own words.
  • Ralph L. Ketcham, Benjamin Franklin (1966), Short biography.
  • Edmund S. Morgan. Benjamin Franklin (2003). Short introduction by leading scholar
  • Carl Van Doren. Benjamin Franklin (1938; reprinted 1991). full-length biography.
  • Gordon Wood, The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin (2005). Interpretive essay by leading scholar

For Young Readers

  • Fleming, Candace. Ben Franklin's Almanac: Being a True Account of the Good Gentleman's Life. Atheneum/Anne Schwart, 2003, 128 pages, ISBN

978-0-689-83549-0.

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Scholarly Studies

  • Douglas Anderson. The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin (1997). BF in terms of intellectual history

www.asimovians.com/bookreviews.php?op=showcontent&id=64 The Kite That Won The Revolution], a biography for children that focuses on Franklin's scientific and diplomatic contributions.//www.asimovians.com/bookreviews.php?op=showcontent&id=64 The Kite That Won The Revolution], a biography for children that focuses on Franklin's scientific and diplomatic contributions.

  • M. H. Buxbaum., ed. Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin (1987).
  • I. Bernard Cohen. Benjamin Franklin's Science (1990). One of several books by Cohen on Franklin's science.
  • Paul W. Conner. Poor Richard's Politicks (1965). Analyzes BF's ideas in terms of the Enlightenment
  • Dray, Philip. Stealing God's Thunder: Benjamin Franklin's Lightning Rod and the Invention of America. Random House, 2005. 279 pp.

tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0057-169 "Franklin as Printer and Publisher"] in The Century (April 1899) v. 57 pp. 803-18. By Paul Leicester Ford. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0058-172 "Franklin as Scientist"] in The Century (Sept 1899) v.57 pp. 750-63. By Paul Leicester Ford. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0058-201 "Franklin as Politician and Diplomatist"] in The Century (October 1899) v. 57 pp. 881-899. By Paul Leicester Ford.

  • Gleason, Philip. "Trouble in the Colonial Melting Pot." Journal of American Ethnic History 2000 20(1): 3-17. ISSN 0278-5927 Fulltext online in Ingenta and Ebsco. Considers the political consequences of the remarks in a 1751 pamphlet by Franklin on demographic growth and its implications for the colonies. He called the Pennsylvania Germans "Palatine Boors" who could never acquire the "Complexion" of the English settlers and to "Blacks and Tawneys" as weakening the social structure of the colonies. Although Franklin apparently reconsidered shortly thereafter, and the phrases were omitted from all later printings of the pamphlet, his views may have played a role in his political defeat in 1764.

xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/LAWRENCE/dhlch02.htm online version]//xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/LAWRENCE/dhlch02.htm online version]

  • Monaghan, J. E. (2005). Learning to read and write in colonial America. Boston, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.
  • Olson, Lester C. Benjamin Franklin's Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology. U. of South Carolina Press, 2004. 323 pp.
  • Skousen, W. Cleon. The Five Thousand Year Leap (1981). Brief summary on 28 ideas implemented into the U.S. Constitution by the American Founding Fathers.
  • Schiff, Stacy. A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America (2005) (UK title Dr Franklin Goes to France)
  • Schiffer, Michael Brian. Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment. U. of California Press, 2003. 383 pp.

fusion.dalmatech.com/%7Eadmin24/files/moralityofvalues_bfranklin.pdf Online Version]//fusion.dalmatech.com/%7Eadmin24/files/moralityofvalues_bfranklin.pdf Online Version] tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.bartleby.com/225/index.html#6 Stuart Sherman "Franklin" ] 1918 article on Franklin's writings.

  • Michael Sletcher, 'Domesticity: The Human Side of Benjamin Franklin', Magazine of History, XXI (2006).
  • Waldstreicher, David. Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution. Hill and Wang, 2004. 315 pp.
  • Walters, Kerry S. Benjamin Franklin and His Gods. U. of Illinois Press, 1999. 213 pp. Takes position midway between D. H. Lawrence's brutal 1930 denunciation of Franklin's religion as nothing more than a bourgeois commercialism tricked out in shallow utilitarian moralisms and Owen Aldridge's sympathetic 1967 treatment of the dynamism and protean character of Franklin's "polytheistic" religion.
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Primary sources

  • Silence Dogood, The Busy-Body, & Early Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) ISBN 978-1-93108222-8
  • Autobiography, Poor Richard, & Later Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) ISBN 978-1-88301153-6
  • Benjamin Franklin Reader edited by Walter Isaacson (2003)
  • Houston, Alan, ed. Franklin: The Autobiography and other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue. Cambridge U. Press, 2004. 371 pp.
  • Ketcham, Ralph, ed. The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin. (1965, reprinted 2003). 459 pp.

tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/index.html] Leonard Labaree, et al., eds., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 37 vols. to date (1959-2006), definitive edition, through 1783. This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in large academic libraries. It is most useful for detailed research on specific topics. The complete text of all the documents are online and searchable; The Index is also online.

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References

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->

<references />
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External links

Modèle:Wikisource author Modèle:Wikiquote

{{#tag:ImageMap| Image:Commons-logo.svg|50px|commons:Accueil default commons:Accueil desc none}}

Wikimedia Commons propose des documents multimédia libres sur Benjamin Franklin.

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Biographical and guides

tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.time.com/time/2003/franklin/bffranklin.html Special Report: Citizen Ben's Greatest Virtues] Time Magazine tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/franklin/franklin.html Finding Franklin: A Resource Guide] Library of Congress tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm Guide to Benjamin Franklin] By a history professor at the University of Illinois. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.pbs.org/benfranklin/ Benjamin Franklin: An extraordinary life] PBS tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ar/14308.htm Benjamin Franklin: First American Diplomat] US State Department tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.ushistory.org/franklin/ The Electric Benjamin Franklin] ushistory.org tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=4994 Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)] The Literary Encyclopedia (subscription required to read full text).

tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//ben.clusty.com/ Ben Franklin: Resources on the web] clusty.com tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.english.udel.edu/lemay/franklin/ Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History] by J. A. Leo Lemay tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.colonialhall.com/franklin/franklin.php Benjamin Franklin 1706-1790] Text of biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.forbesbookclub.com/BookPage.asp?prod_cd=IYYPP Benjamin Franklin: America's Gift to the World ]book of the teachings of Ben Franklin tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.gigmasters.com/armonica/benfranklin.html Benjamin Franklin: The Musician and Inventor] Cecilia Brauer tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.researchchannel.org/prog/displayevent.aspx?rID=9379&fID=345 Benjamin Franklin's Science]

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Online writings by Benjamin Franklin

franklinpapers.org/franklin/ Yale edition of complete works]//franklinpapers.org/franklin/ Yale edition of complete works]

tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.bartleby.com/people/FranklinB.html Online Works by Benjamin Franklin] tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//literalsystems.org/abooks/index.php/Audio-Book/DialogueBetweenFranklinAndTheGout "Dialogue Between Franklin and the Gout"] Creative Commons audio recording. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.aip.org/history/gap/Franklin/Franklin.html Letter IV: Farther Experiments] pdf and Letter XI: Observations in electricity pdf tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/fellows/bob_morse_04/ A Comprehensive Collection of Franklin’s Electrical Works: The Electrical Writings of Benjamin Franklin] Collected by Robert A. Morse (2004) tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.ftrain.com/franklin_improving_self.html Franklin's 13 Virtues] Extract of Franklin's autobiography, compiled by Paul Ford. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/25/ The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1734). An Online Electronic Edition.] [pdf only] Edited and published by Franklin. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.poorrichardsalmanac.info/ Poor Richard's Almanac'] Compilations/extracts by poorrichardsalmanac.info tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//sln.fi.edu/franklin/family/lastwill.html Franklin's Last Will & Testament] Transcription. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf2/articles.htm Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion] tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=470 To the Royal Academy of * * * * * (c. 1781)] (Satirical writing on flatulence)

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The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin

tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography/index.htm The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin] Single page version. ushistory.org tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.gutenberg.org/etext/148 The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin] Project Gutenberg tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//librivox.org/the-autobigraphy-of-benjamin-franklin-ed-by-frank-woodworth-pine/ The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin] LibriVox recording

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Franklin in the arts

tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.benfranklin300.com/ Benjamin Franklin 300 (1706 - 2006)] Official web site of the Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/thumbnail15.html Portrait of Benjamin Franklin (PD)] (large version) From Dr. William J. Ball tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/bradford.htm The American Philosophical Society: Bradford Collection] Collection of Franklin's correspondence with Polly Stevenson Hewson. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org The Benjamin Franklin House] Franklin's only surviving residence. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.planetware.com/boston/ben-franklin-birthplace-us-ma-ben.htm Ben Franklin Birthplace] A historic site, link provides location and map. tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.benfranklin2006.org Friends of Franklin] Membership society.

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Franklin and medicine

tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Short scholarly biography written in 1931, with links to sources.//www.abc.net.au/rn/ockhamsrazor/stories/2006/1814928.htm Franklin's impact on medicine] - talk by medical historian, Dr Jim Leavesley celebrating the 300th anniversary of Franklin's birth on Okham's Razor ABC Radio National - December 2006

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IMDB


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Postmaster General of the United States
1775 – 1776 		Succeeded by
Richard Bache
Preceded by
James Irvine 		Member, Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, representing the City of Philadelphia
October 17, 1785 – October 20, 1788 		Succeeded by
Samuel Miles
Preceded by
John Dickinson 		President of Pennsylvania
October 18, 1785 – November 5, 1788 		Succeeded by
Thomas Mifflin
United States Minister to France
1778 – 1785 		Succeeded by
Thomas Jefferson
United States Minister to Sweden
1782 – 1783 (?) 		Succeeded by
Jonathan Russell
Provost of the Academy of Pennsylvania
1749 – 1754 		Succeeded by
William Smith
as Provost of the College of Pennsylvania
Preceded by
John Pringle 		Copley Medal
1753 		Succeeded by
William Lewis
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