Cannabis (drug)

Un article de Vev.

www.askoxford.com/results/?view=dict&freesearch=marijuana&branch=13842570&textsearchtype=exact Compact Oxford Ditctionary definition] </ref> or ganja (Hindi: गांजा gānjā),<ref>The Oxford English Dictionary. Any of various preparations of different parts of the hemp-plant which are smoked, chewed, sniffed or drunk for their intoxicating or hallucinogenic properties and were formerly used medicinally; bhang (marijuana), ganja, and charas (hashish) are different forms of these preparations." It is also notes that "cannabis" was elliptical reference (i.e. slang) for Cannabis sativa.</ref> is a psychoactive product of the plant Cannabis sativa. The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature flowers and subtending leaves of pistillate ("female") plants. The resinous form, known as hashish,<ref> Matthew J. Atha - Independent Drug Monitoring Unit

.    Types of Cannabis Available in the UK 

. Retrieved on 2007-09-13.

</ref> consists primarily of glandular trichomes collected from the same plant material. The major biologically active chemical compound in cannabis is Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), commonly referred to as THC.//www.askoxford.com/results/?view=dict&freesearch=marijuana&branch=13842570&textsearchtype=exact Compact Oxford Ditctionary definition] </ref> or ganja (Hindi: गांजा gānjā),<ref>The Oxford English Dictionary. Any of various preparations of different parts of the hemp-plant which are smoked, chewed, sniffed or drunk for their intoxicating or hallucinogenic properties and were formerly used medicinally; bhang (marijuana), ganja, and charas (hashish) are different forms of these preparations." It is also notes that "cannabis" was elliptical reference (i.e. slang) for Cannabis sativa.</ref> is a psychoactive product of the plant Cannabis sativa. The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature flowers and subtending leaves of pistillate ("female") plants. The resinous form, known as hashish,<ref> Matthew J. Atha - Independent Drug Monitoring Unit

.    Types of Cannabis Available in the UK 

. Retrieved on 2007-09-13.

</ref> consists primarily of glandular trichomes collected from the same plant material. The major biologically active chemical compound in cannabis is Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), commonly referred to as THC.

www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_biggest_market.pdf|title=Cannabis: Why we should care|journal=World Drug Report|volume=1|id=ISBN 9-2114-8214-3|accessdate=2006-10-10}} p.14</ref> The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became illegal in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition while others have reduced the priority of enforcement.//www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_biggest_market.pdf|title=Cannabis: Why we should care|journal=World Drug Report|volume=1|id=ISBN 9-2114-8214-3|accessdate=2006-10-10}} p.14</ref> The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became illegal in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition while others have reduced the priority of enforcement.

Sommaire 1 History 1.1 Medical use 1.2 New breeding and cultivation techniques 2 Criminalization and legalization 3 Effects 3.1 Health issues 3.2 Relationship with other drugs 3.3 Classification 4 Methods of consumption 4.1 Smoking 4.2 Vaporization 4.3 Eating 4.4 Other methods 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links

History

57.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HE/HEMP.htm|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|edition=11th|accessdate=2006-06-15}}</ref> The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis.<ref name=rudgley1998>Modèle:Cite book</ref>//57.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HE/HEMP.htm|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|edition=11th|accessdate=2006-06-15}}</ref> The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis.<ref name=rudgley1998>Modèle:Cite book</ref>

english.peopledaily.com.cn/200612/23/eng20061223_335258.html|title=Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman|publisher=People's Daily Online|accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref><ref name=jiang2006a>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>//english.peopledaily.com.cn/200612/23/eng20061223_335258.html|title=Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman|publisher=People's Daily Online|accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref><ref name=jiang2006a>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>

news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2633187.stm|title=Cannabis linked to Biblical healing|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> It was also used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> In India and Nepal, it has been used by some of the wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries, and in modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced it as a sacrament.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ, even though the movement was founded in the United States in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church.<ref> The Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church

.    Marijuana and the Bible 
. Schaffer Library of Drug Policy 
   

. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. </ref> Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that cannabis is the Tree of Life.<ref> Zion Light Ministry

. Retrieved on 2007-08-20. </ref><ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Other organized religions founded in the past century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry,<ref> The Hawai'i Cannabis Ministry

. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. </ref> the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism,<ref> Cantheism

. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. </ref> the Cannabis Assembly<ref> Cannabis Assembly

. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. </ref> and the Church of Cognizance.//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2633187.stm|title=Cannabis linked to Biblical healing|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> It was also used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> In India and Nepal, it has been used by some of the wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries, and in modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced it as a sacrament.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ, even though the movement was founded in the United States in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church.<ref> The Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church

.    Marijuana and the Bible 
. Schaffer Library of Drug Policy 
   

. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. </ref> Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that cannabis is the Tree of Life.<ref> Zion Light Ministry

. Retrieved on 2007-08-20. </ref><ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Other organized religions founded in the past century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry,<ref> The Hawai'i Cannabis Ministry

. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. </ref> the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism,<ref> Cantheism

. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. </ref> the Cannabis Assembly<ref> Cannabis Assembly

. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. </ref> and the Church of Cognizance.

Cannabis was introduced to the Americas in the mid-19th century by Indian laborers under the Indian indenture system implemented by the British Empire after the end of African slavery in the British West Indies. In the Caribbean, cannabis is still known as ganja (the Sanskrit word for marijuana), Indian or Coolie weed. The plant eventually spread into Mexico, U.S., Canada and the rest of the Americas.^{[citation needed]}

The production of cannabis for drug use remains illegal throughout most of the world through for ex. International Opium Convention of 1925, the Marijuana Tax Act of 1937, the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, while simple possession of small quantities is either legal, or treated as an addiction rather than a criminal offense in a few countries.

Medical use

Main article: Medical cannabis

www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=6917|title=Cannabidiol Dramatically Inhibits Breast Cancer Cell Growth, Study Says|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref>//www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=6917|title=Cannabidiol Dramatically Inhibits Breast Cancer Cell Growth, Study Says|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref>

www.fda.gov/ola/2004/marijuana0401.html|title=Testimony before the//www.fda.gov/ola/2004/marijuana0401.html|title=Testimony before the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources, Committee on Government Reform|author=Meyer, Robert J.|publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref>

news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3169901.stm|title=Cannabis lifts Alzheimer appetite|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref>//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3169901.stm|title=Cannabis lifts Alzheimer appetite|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref>

Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some data exist, showing a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke marijuana,<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> but the effects are short-lived, and the frequency of doses needed to sustain a decreased IOP can cause systemic toxicity. There is also some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> Although marijuana is not a good therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective, safer treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>

www.medboardwatch.com/wb/pages/therapeutic-effects.php|title=Review of Therapeutic Effects|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> Case reports have found that cannabis can relieve tics in people with obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive chemical found in cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">Modèle:Cite journal</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-02">Modèle:Cite journal</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-88">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease.<ref name="ADBlock">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.<ref name=steffens2005>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>//www.medboardwatch.com/wb/pages/therapeutic-effects.php|title=Review of Therapeutic Effects|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> Case reports have found that cannabis can relieve tics in people with obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive chemical found in cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">Modèle:Cite journal</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-02">Modèle:Cite journal</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-88">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease.<ref name="ADBlock">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.<ref name=steffens2005>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>

www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-06-23-pot-spray_x.htm|title=Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada|publisher=USA Today|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> Dr. William Notcutt states that the use of MS as the disease to study “had everything to do with politics”.<ref name="Respectable Reefer"> Greenberg , Gary

  . 
 "
   Respectable Reefer 
     
 " , Mother Jones
  , 2005-11-01
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-04-03
 . </ref>//www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-06-23-pot-spray_x.htm|title=Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada|publisher=USA Today|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> Dr. William Notcutt states that the use of MS as the disease to study “had everything to do with politics”.<ref name="Respectable Reefer">   Greenberg , Gary 
       
   
  . 
 "
   Respectable Reefer 
     
 " , Mother Jones
  , 2005-11-01
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-04-03
 . </ref>

New breeding and cultivation techniques

Main article: Cannabis (drug) cultivation

www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18310976/|publisher=MSNBC|title=Marijuana sold in U.S. stronger than ever|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref>//www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18310976/|publisher=MSNBC|title=Marijuana sold in U.S. stronger than ever|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref>

www.unodc.org/unodc/world_drug_report.html|title=World Drug Report 2006|publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|accessdate=2007-09-21}} Ch. 2.3</ref>//www.unodc.org/unodc/world_drug_report.html|title=World Drug Report 2006|publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|accessdate=2007-09-21}} Ch. 2.3</ref>

The average THC content of Skunk #1 is 8.2%; it is a 4-way combination of the cannabis strains Afghani indica, Mexican Gold, Colombian Gold, and Thai: 75% sativa, 25% indica. This was done via extensive breeding by cultivators in California in the 1970s using the traditional outdoor cropping methods used for centuries.

In proposed revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the government is considering scheduling the more potent cannabis material as a separate, more restricted substance. Many cannabis proponents are vehemently opposed, reasoning that if one can smoke less cannabis to achieve the same effect, then it is safer in the long run than smoking a less potent product.

www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/267002002.pdf|title=A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study on the pharmacokinetics and effects of cannabis|publisher=RIVM|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> Smoking of cannabis with higher THC concentrations was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness).//www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/267002002.pdf|title=A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study on the pharmacokinetics and effects of cannabis|publisher=RIVM|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> Smoking of cannabis with higher THC concentrations was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness).

What was well observed in the Dutch study was that the effects based from a single dose—the smoking of one piece of a joint for 20–25 minutes—lasted for more than eight hours. The reaction time was still significantly slower about five hours after smoking. At that time, the THC serum concentration was low, but still present. This means that even when individuals have the impression that their state has returned to baseline and that they can smoke another piece of joint, the effect of the first joint may be still present. When subjects smoke on several occasions per day, accumulation of THC may occur.

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12373420&dopt=AbstractCurranCurran|author=Curran H.V., et al.|title=Cognitive and subjective dose-response effects|year=2002|publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref>//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12373420&dopt=AbstractCurranCurran|author=Curran H.V., et al.|title=Cognitive and subjective dose-response effects|year=2002|publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref>

There are two recognized types of herbal cannabis, sativa and indica. So-called sativa strains are reputed to induce a noticeably more "cerebral" high, while indica strains induce more of a body high. These two drug types are often hybridized or crossed with early-maturing (but low in THC) ruderalis strains to increase the range in desirable characteristics.

Criminalization and legalization

Main article: Legality of cannabis

Modèle:See also Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation or a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who traffic the drug on the black market. There are also changes in a more restrictive direction such as the closing of coffee shops in the Netherlands, the closing of the open drug market in Christiania, Copenhagen and the higher minimum penalties as in Canada. Although recently in Canada the use of marijuana has been decriminalized and laws in certain provinces (such as British Columbia) have been un-enforced. Some jurisdictions use mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users with freedom from narcotic drugs as goal. Simple possession can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution.

Effects

Main article: Health issues and the effects of cannabis

www.marijuanalibrary.org/brain2.txt </ref> (which, in practical terms, is a varying amount, dependent upon potency). A related compound, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabivarin, also known as THCV, is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This cannabinoid has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga (marijuana), and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas.//www.marijuanalibrary.org/brain2.txt </ref> (which, in practical terms, is a varying amount, dependent upon potency). A related compound, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabivarin, also known as THCV, is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This cannabinoid has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga (marijuana), and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas.

Health issues

Main article: Health issues and the effects of cannabis

www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083353.htm |publisher=Science Daily |date=2006-05-26 |title=Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer}}</ref>a recent study by the Canadian government found cannabis contained more toxic substances than tobacco smoke. It contained 20 times more ammonia, (a carcinogen) and five times more of hydrogen cyanide (which can cause heart disease) and of nitrogen oxides, (which can cause lung damage) than tobacco smoke.<ref name="Cannabis smoke 'has more toxins'">"

   Cannabis smoke 'has more toxins' 
     
 " , BBC
  , 2007-12-19]]</ref>
 
 . </ref>//www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083353.htm |publisher=Science Daily |date=2006-05-26 |title=Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer}}</ref>a recent study by the Canadian government found cannabis contained more toxic substances than tobacco smoke.  It contained 20 times more ammonia, (a carcinogen) and five times more of hydrogen cyanide (which can cause heart disease) and of nitrogen oxides, (which can cause lung damage) than tobacco smoke.<ref name="Cannabis smoke 'has more toxins'">"
   Cannabis smoke 'has more toxins' 
     
 " , BBC
  , 2007-12-19]]</ref>
 
 . </ref>

www.nzherald.co.nz/section/1/story.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10122930|title=Cannabis study finds gene linked to psychosis}}</ref> In 2007, a study published in The Lancet and a poll of mental health experts showed that a growing number of medical health practitioners are convinced that cannabis use increases susceptibility to mental illness, accounting for 14% of United Kingdom psychosis cases; however, the risk to an individual smoking cannabis is only increased by 2%.<ref name="The Great Cannabis Debate">"

   Independent: Poll of Mental Health Practitioners 
     
 "
 . </ref>//www.nzherald.co.nz/section/1/story.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10122930|title=Cannabis study finds gene linked to psychosis}}</ref> In 2007, a study published in The Lancet and a poll of mental health experts showed that a growing number of medical health practitioners are convinced that cannabis use increases susceptibility to mental illness, accounting for 14% of United Kingdom psychosis cases; however, the risk to an individual smoking cannabis is only increased by 2%.<ref name="The Great Cannabis Debate">"
   Independent: Poll of Mental Health Practitioners 
     
 "
 . </ref>

www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/references/journal/1998_hall_lancet_1/1998_hall_lancet_1.pdf]]</ref>//www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/references/journal/1998_hall_lancet_1/1998_hall_lancet_1.pdf]]</ref>

www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/references/journal/1998_hall_lancet_1/1998_hall_lancet_1.pdf]]</ref>.//www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/references/journal/1998_hall_lancet_1/1998_hall_lancet_1.pdf]]</ref>.

www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/references/journal/1998_hall_lancet_1/1998_hall_lancet_1.pdf]]</ref>.//www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/references/journal/1998_hall_lancet_1/1998_hall_lancet_1.pdf]]</ref>.

Relationship with other drugs

www.rand.org/news/press.02/gateway.html|title=RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as "gateway" to the use of cocaine and heroin|publisher=RAND Corporation|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> Some argue that the purported relationship between marijuana and more illicit drugs, as proposed by the "gateway theory," is methodologically flawed. A common argument is that a beginning user of cannabis, not finding it dangerous, will see the often stark difference between public information regarding the drug (much of which is misleading or fabricated, e.g. DARE), and come to distrust the sources of that information in general, and specifically regarding information on other drugs. Some studies support the "gateway drug" model.<ref name=journalwatch> Saitz, Richard

     (2003-02-18)
   
.    Is marijuana a gateway drug? 
. Journal Watch 
   

. Retrieved on 2007-02-27. </ref> An example from 2007: A stratified, random sample of 1943 adolescents was recruited from secondary schools across Victoria, Australia, at age 14–15 years. This cohort was interviewed on eight occasions until the age of 24–25 years. At age 24 years, 12% of the sample had used amphetamines in the past year, with 1–2% using at least weekly. Young adult amphetamine use was predicted strongly by adolescent drug use and was associated robustly with other drug use and dependence in young adulthood. Associations were stronger for more frequent users. Among young adults who had not been using amphetamines at age 20 years, the strongest predictor of use at age 24 years was the use of other drugs, particularly cannabis, at 20 years.<ref> Degenhardt, Louisa et al

       (2007)
     
   
 
.    Who are the new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study of young Australians 

. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. </ref> Those who were smoking cannabis at the age of 15 were as much as 15 times more likely to be using amphetamines in their early 20s.<ref> Cannabis linked to use of amphetamines

. ABC News Australia 
 
 (2007-07-18)
   

. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. </ref>//www.rand.org/news/press.02/gateway.html|title=RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as "gateway" to the use of cocaine and heroin|publisher=RAND Corporation|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> Some argue that the purported relationship between marijuana and more illicit drugs, as proposed by the "gateway theory," is methodologically flawed. A common argument is that a beginning user of cannabis, not finding it dangerous, will see the often stark difference between public information regarding the drug (much of which is misleading or fabricated, e.g. DARE), and come to distrust the sources of that information in general, and specifically regarding information on other drugs. Some studies support the "gateway drug" model.<ref name=journalwatch> Saitz, Richard

     (2003-02-18)
   
.    Is marijuana a gateway drug? 
. Journal Watch 
   

. Retrieved on 2007-02-27. </ref> An example from 2007: A stratified, random sample of 1943 adolescents was recruited from secondary schools across Victoria, Australia, at age 14–15 years. This cohort was interviewed on eight occasions until the age of 24–25 years. At age 24 years, 12% of the sample had used amphetamines in the past year, with 1–2% using at least weekly. Young adult amphetamine use was predicted strongly by adolescent drug use and was associated robustly with other drug use and dependence in young adulthood. Associations were stronger for more frequent users. Among young adults who had not been using amphetamines at age 20 years, the strongest predictor of use at age 24 years was the use of other drugs, particularly cannabis, at 20 years.<ref> Degenhardt, Louisa et al

       (2007)
     
   
 
.    Who are the new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study of young Australians 

. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. </ref> Those who were smoking cannabis at the age of 15 were as much as 15 times more likely to be using amphetamines in their early 20s.<ref> Cannabis linked to use of amphetamines

. ABC News Australia 
 
 (2007-07-18)
   

. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. </ref>

www.mpp.org/site/c.glKZLeMQIsG/b.1146183/k.AE54/FAQ.htm|title=Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ|accessdate=2006-12-24}}</ref> Some contend that by this argument, alcohol and tobacco may also be regarded as gateway drugs. Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.<ref name=Torabi1993>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>//www.mpp.org/site/c.glKZLeMQIsG/b.1146183/k.AE54/FAQ.htm|title=Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ|accessdate=2006-12-24}}</ref> Some contend that by this argument, alcohol and tobacco may also be regarded as gateway drugs. Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.<ref name=Torabi1993>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>

diss.kib.ki.se/2007/978-91-7357-064-0/|author=Ellgren, Maria|title=Neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure in relation to the gateway hypothesis|year=2007|publisher=Karolinska Institutet|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref>//diss.kib.ki.se/2007/978-91-7357-064-0/|author=Ellgren, Maria|title=Neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure in relation to the gateway hypothesis|year=2007|publisher=Karolinska Institutet|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref>

A study<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> published in The Lancet on 24 March 2007 was twenty drugs were assigned a risk from zero to three. Dr. David Nutt et al. asked medical, scientific and legal experts to rate 20 different drugs on nine parameters:

• Physical harm (Acute, Chronic, and Intravenous harm)
• Dependence (Intensity of pleasure, Psychological dependence, Physical dependence)
• Social harms (Intoxication, Other social harms, Health-care costs)

Cannabis was ranked seventeenth of twenty for mean physical harm score and eleventh for mean dependence score. Not shown is the mean social harm score, which rated ninth, in a tie with Amphetamine.

Classification

www.nida.nih.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html | accessmonthday=July 15 | accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name="Stafford">Modèle:Cite book</ref>//www.nida.nih.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html | accessmonthday=July 15 | accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name="Stafford">Modèle:Cite book</ref>

Methods of consumption

Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms:

• Marijuana or ganja: the flowering tops of female plants, from less than 1% THC to 22% THC; the wide range is probably one of the reasons for the conflicting results from different studies.
• Hashish or charas: a concentrated resin composed of heated glandular trichomes that have been physically extracted, usually by rubbing, sifting, or with ice.

goafrica.about.com/od/morocco/a/moroccokif.htm|title=Smoking hashish in Morocco|publisher=About.com|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> (3) sifted cannabis trichomes consisting of only the glandular "heads" (often incorrectly referred to as "crystals" or "pollen"); (4) the crystal (trichomes) left at the bottom of a grinder after grinding marijuana, then smoked.//goafrica.about.com/od/morocco/a/moroccokif.htm|title=Smoking hashish in Morocco|publisher=About.com|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> (3) sifted cannabis trichomes consisting of only the glandular "heads" (often incorrectly referred to as "crystals" or "pollen"); (4) the crystal (trichomes) left at the bottom of a grinder after grinding marijuana, then smoked.

• Bhang: a beverage prepared by grinding cannabis leaves in milk and boiling with spices and other ingredients.

These forms are not exclusive, and mixtures of two or more different forms of cannabis are frequently consumed. Between the many different strains of cannabis and the various ways that it is prepared, there are innumerable variations similar to the wide variety of mixed alcoholic beverages that are consumed.

Smoking

Main article: Cannabis smoking

Cannabis can be smoked in a variety of ways, some of which are more popular than others. The most common methods of smoking cannabis involve the use of implements such as bongs and smoking pipes, or rolling joints or blunts[2]. These methods differ by: the preparation of the cannabis plant before use; the parts of the cannabis plant which is used; and the treatment of the smoke before inhalation.

Vaporization

www.storz-bickel.com/pics/down/Lufttemperaturtabelle%20-%20Air%20temperatur%20table.pdf|title=Air Temperature Table|accessdate=2007-09-22}}. Volcano^tm Operating Manual. Storz & Bickel, Tuttlingen, Germany.</ref><ref name=merck1989>1989. The Merck Index, 11th ed., Merck & Co., Rahway, New Jersey</ref> Toxic chemicals are released at much lower levels than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. A MAPS-NORML study using a Volcano vaporizer reported 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor.<ref name="norml1">{{cite journal you breathe in thorught your mouth off a joint and blow it out of your mouth//www.storz-bickel.com/pics/down/Lufttemperaturtabelle%20-%20Air%20temperatur%20table.pdf|title=Air Temperature Table|accessdate=2007-09-22}}. Volcano^tm Operating Manual. Storz & Bickel, Tuttlingen, Germany.</ref><ref name=merck1989>1989. The Merck Index, 11th ed., Merck & Co., Rahway, New Jersey</ref> Toxic chemicals are released at much lower levels than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. A MAPS-NORML study using a Volcano vaporizer reported 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor.<ref name="norml1">Modèle:Cite journal you breathe in thorught your mouth off a joint and blow it out of your mouth</ref> The effects from a vaporizer are noticeably different to that of smoking cannabis. Users have reported a more euphoric hallucinogen type high, because the vapor contains more pure THC.//www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n3/06359mj1.html|title=Marijuana Water Pipe and Vaporizer Study|last=Gieringer|first=Dale|accessdate=2006-04-21}}</ref> The effects from a vaporizer are noticeably different to that of smoking cannabis. Users have reported a more euphoric hallucinogen type high, because the vapor contains more pure THC.

Eating

As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. Although hashish is sometimes eaten raw or mixed with water, THC and other cannabinoids are more efficiently absorbed into the bloodstream when dissolved in ethanol, or combined with butter or other lipids. The time to onset of effects is usually about an hour and may continue for a considerable length of time, whereas the effects of smoking herbal cannabis are almost immediate.

www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1516-31802004000300007&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en| accessdate=2006-05-02}}</ref> Titration to the desired effect by ingestion is much more difficult than through inhalation.//www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1516-31802004000300007&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en| accessdate=2006-05-02}}</ref> Titration to the desired effect by ingestion is much more difficult than through inhalation.

Other methods

Cannabis material can be leached in high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create “Green Dragon”. This process is often employed to make use of low-potency stems and leaves.

lib1.bmcc.cuny.edu/studres/projectsakinde.html|title=The Medical Applications of Cannabinoids|author=Akinde Omotayo|publisher=Borough of Manhattan Community College|accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref>), enough THC can be dissolved to make a mildly psychoactive tea. However, water-based infusions are generally considered to be an inefficient use of the herb.//lib1.bmcc.cuny.edu/studres/projectsakinde.html|title=The Medical Applications of Cannabinoids|author=Akinde Omotayo|publisher=Borough of Manhattan Community College|accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref>), enough THC can be dissolved to make a mildly psychoactive tea. However, water-based infusions are generally considered to be an inefficient use of the herb.

www.prweb.com/releases/2006/7/prweb414446.htm|title=Greenades, Marijuana Gumballs, Identified by Maryland Police, Used by High School Students|publisher=PR Web|date=2006-07-22|accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref>//www.prweb.com/releases/2006/7/prweb414446.htm|title=Greenades, Marijuana Gumballs, Identified by Maryland Police, Used by High School Students|publisher=PR Web|date=2006-07-22|accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref>

See also

References

www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937

Bibliography

select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10E1FFB35580C748EDDA90994DA404482|author=Howard Markel|title=For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away|publisher=New York Times|date=2002-10-27}}//select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10E1FFB35580C748EDDA90994DA404482|author=Howard Markel|title=For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away|publisher=New York Times|date=2002-10-27}} www.ukcia.org/research/CannabisUseInAdolescenceAndRiskForAdultPsychosis.pdf|author=Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt|title=Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study|year=2002|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=325|pages=1212 – 1213}}//www.ukcia.org/research/CannabisUseInAdolescenceAndRiskForAdultPsychosis.pdf|author=Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt|title=Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study|year=2002|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=325|pages=1212 – 1213}} www.ukcia.org/research/CannabisUseInAdolescenceAndRiskForAdultPsychosis.pdf|author=Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt|title=Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study|year=2002|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=325|pages=1212 – 1213}}//www.ukcia.org/research/COMTgene.pdf|Author=|title=Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction|author=Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig|year=2005|journal=Biol Psychiatry|volume=25|pages=1117 – 1127}} select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10E1FFB35580C748EDDA90994DA404482|author=Howard Markel|title=For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away|publisher=New York Times|date=2002-10-27}}//www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3561-1565337,00.html|title=One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis|first=Mark|last=Henderson|publisher=The Times|date=2005-04-12}} www.alternet.org/drugreporter/21436/|date=2005-03-07|title=Psychosis, Hype And Baloney|publisher=AlterNet}}//www.alternet.org/drugreporter/21436/|date=2005-03-07|title=Psychosis, Hype And Baloney|publisher=AlterNet}} ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108-10/correspondence.html#thc |title=Antitumor Effects of THC |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=108 |issue=10 |month=October |year=2000 |pages=Correspondence |author=James Huff and Po Chan |pmid=11097557}}//ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108-10/correspondence.html#thc |title=Antitumor Effects of THC |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=108 |issue=10 |month=October |year=2000 |pages=Correspondence |author=James Huff and Po Chan |pmid=11097557}}

• Modèle:Cite book

www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-113852471.html?refid=hbw_sw|date=2004-01-01|title=Long-term impact of the Gatehouse Project on Cannabis use of 16-year-olds in Australia. (Research Papers)|publisher=journal of school health}}//www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-113852471.html?refid=hbw_sw|date=2004-01-01|title=Long-term impact of the Gatehouse Project on Cannabis use of 16-year-olds in Australia. (Research Papers)|publisher=journal of school health}}

External links

Modèle:Wiktionarypar

• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//www.mpp.org Marijuana Policy Project]
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//www.norml.org National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws]
• Wiktionary appendix of cannabis slang
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//parentingteens.about.com/cs/marijuana/l/bldicmarijuana.htm Various slang terms for cannabis]
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//cannabis.com/faqs/ Comprehensive Cannabis Faqs and Marijuana information]
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//www.friendsofcannabis.com/ Extensive list of notable cannabis users]
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//www.veryimportantpotheads.com/ Debunking Myths about Marijuana Since 2002]
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//freemo.syncleus.com/marijuana.pdf Research paper on the effects of marijuana]
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//www.rxcbc.org/exd.html Cannabis overdose and misuse]
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//http://cannabisculture.com/articles/2862.html How to judge marijuana]
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/ledain/ldctoc.html The Report of the Canadian Government Commission of Inquiry into the Non-Medical Use of Drugs - 1972]
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//lois.justice.gc.ca/en/C-38.8/SOR-2001-227/index.html Marihuana Medical Access Regulations in Canada]
• www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937//www.alternet.org/story/9257 Pot Shrinks Tumors; Government Knew in '74]

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