Cougar
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- For other uses, see Cougar (disambiguation) or Puma (disambiguation).
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The cougar (Puma concolor), also puma, mountain lion, or panther, is a mammal of the Felidae family, native to the Americas. This large, solitary cat has the greatest range of any wild terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere,<ref name="diet"/> extending from Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes of South America. An adaptable, generalist species, the cougar is found in every major New World habitat type. It is the second heaviest cat in the New World, after the jaguar, and the fourth heaviest in the world, after the tiger, lion, and jaguar, although it is most closely related to smaller felines.
A capable diurnal stalk-and-ambush predator, the cougar pursues a wide variety of prey. Primary food sources include ungulates such as deer and bighorn sheep, as well as domestic cattle, horses, and sheep, particularly in the northern part of its range, but it hunts species as small as insects and rodents. It prefers habitats with dense underbrush and rocky areas for stalking, but it can live in open areas. Cougars are known to kill at least one deer sized animal per week, more in warmer climates; unlike bears, they do not like spoiled meat.
The cougar is territorial and persists at low population densities. Individual territory sizes depend on terrain, vegetation, and abundance of prey. While it is a large predator, it is not always the dominant species in its range, as when it competes for prey with animals such as the gray wolf, black bear, and the grizzly bear. It is a reclusive cat and usually avoids people. Attacks on humans remain rare, despite a recent increase in frequency.<ref name="Med"/> There have been few reports of cougars remaining active after 9:00 PM.
Due to persecution following the European colonization of the Americas, and continuing human development of cougar habitat, populations have dropped in many parts of its historical range. In particular, the cougar was extirpated in eastern North America, except an isolated sub-population in Florida; the animal may be recolonizing parts of its former eastern territory. With its vast range, the cougar has dozens of names and various references in the mythology of the indigenous peoples of the Americas and in contemporary culture.
Sommaire |
Naming and etymology
The cougar has over 40 names in English,[citation needed] of which puma and mountain lion are popular. Other names include catamount, panther, painter because of it's black tail tip, and mountain screamer. In North America, "panther" is used most often to refer the Florida panther sub-population. In South America, "panther" refers to both the spotted and black color morphs of the jaguar, while it is also broadly used to refer to the Old World leopard.
www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cougar Cougar], Puma and//www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cougar Cougar], Puma and www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=jaguar | title = Jaguar at the Online Etymology Dictionary | date = 2001 | publisher = Douglas Harper | accessdate = 2006-08-06}}</ref>//www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=jaguar | title = Jaguar at the Online Etymology Dictionary | date = 2001 | publisher = Douglas Harper | accessdate = 2006-08-06}}</ref>
Taxonomy and evolution
www.nytimes.com/2006/01/06/science/06cats.html?ex=1294203600&en=4b75c4da1cdc2167&ei=5090 |work=New York Times |publisher= |date= 2006-01-06 |accessdate=2007-06-03}}</ref> as cats are poorly represented in the fossil record,<ref name="Johnson2006"/> and there are significant confidence intervals with suggested dates.//www.nytimes.com/2006/01/06/science/06cats.html?ex=1294203600&en=4b75c4da1cdc2167&ei=5090 |work=New York Times |publisher= |date= 2006-01-06 |accessdate=2007-06-03}}</ref> as cats are poorly represented in the fossil record,<ref name="Johnson2006"/> and there are significant confidence intervals with suggested dates.
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/311/5757/73 |title=The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae: A genetic assessment |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5757 |pages=73–77 |doi=10.1126/science.1122277 |accessdate=2007-06-04}}</ref> North American felids then invaded South America 3 Ma ago as part of the Great American Interchange, following formation of the Isthmus of Panama. The cougar was originally thought to belong in Felis, the genus which includes the domestic cat, but it is now placed in Puma along with the jaguarundi, a cat just a little more than a tenth its weight.//www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/311/5757/73 |title=The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae: A genetic assessment |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5757 |pages=73–77 |doi=10.1126/science.1122277 |accessdate=2007-06-04}}</ref> North American felids then invaded South America 3 Ma ago as part of the Great American Interchange, following formation of the Isthmus of Panama. The cougar was originally thought to belong in Felis, the genus which includes the domestic cat, but it is now placed in Puma along with the jaguarundi, a cat just a little more than a tenth its weight.
www.coryi.org/Florida_panther/Miscellaneous_Panther_Material/Genomic%20ancestry%20of%20the%20American%20puma.pdf |format = PDF}}</ref> but the relationship is unresolved. It has been suggested that the cheetah lineage diverged from the Puma lineage in the Americas (see American cheetah) and migrated back to Asia and Africa,<ref name="Johnson2006"/><ref name="Culver"/> while other research suggests the cheetah diverged in the Old World itself.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> The outline of small feline migration to the Americas is thus unclear.//www.coryi.org/Florida_panther/Miscellaneous_Panther_Material/Genomic%20ancestry%20of%20the%20American%20puma.pdf |format = PDF}}</ref> but the relationship is unresolved. It has been suggested that the cheetah lineage diverged from the Puma lineage in the Americas (see American cheetah) and migrated back to Asia and Africa,<ref name="Johnson2006"/><ref name="Culver"/> while other research suggests the cheetah diverged in the Old World itself.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> The outline of small feline migration to the Americas is thus unclear.
Recent studies have demonstrated a high level of genetic similarity among the North American cougar populations, suggesting that they are all fairly recent descendants of a small ancestral group. Culver et al. suggest that the original North American population of Puma concolor became extinct during the Pleistocene extinctions some 10,000 years ago, when other large mammals such as Smilodon also disappeared. North America was then repopulated by a group of South American cougars.<ref name="Culver"/>
Subspecies
Until the late 1990s, as many as 32 subspecies were recorded; however, a recent genetic study of mitochondrial DNA<ref name="Culver"/> found that many of these are too similar to be recognized as distinct at a molecular level. Following the research, the canonical Mammal Species of the World (3rd edition) recognizes six subspecies, five of which are solely found in Latin America:<ref name=MSW3>Modèle:MSW3 Wozencraft</ref>
- Argentine puma Modèle:Nobold
- includes the previous subspecies and synonyms hudsonii and puma (Marcelli, 1922);
- Costa Rican Cougar Modèle:Nobold
- Eastern South American cougar Modèle:Nobold
- includes the previous subspecies and synonyms acrocodia, borbensis, capricornensis, concolor (Pelzeln, 1883), greeni and nigra;
- North American Cougar Modèle:Nobold
- includes the previous subspecies and synonyms arundivaga, aztecus, browni, californica, coryi, floridana, hippolestes, improcera, kaibabensis, mayensis, missoulensis, olympus, oregonensis, schorgeri, stanleyana, vancouverensis and youngi;
- Northern South American cougar Modèle:Nobold
- includes the previous subspecies and synonyms bangsi, incarum, osgoodi, soasoaranna, soderstromii, sucuacuara and wavula;
- Southern South American puma Modèle:Nobold
- includes the previous subspecies and synonyms araucanus, concolor (Gay, 1847), patagonica, pearsoni and puma (Trouessart, 1904)
www.wildlifejournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-pdf&file=i0022-541X-70-1-1.pdf |title=Improving The Use Of Science In Conservation: Lessons From The Florida Panther |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=1-7 |doi=10.2193/0022-541X(2006)70%5B1:ITUOSI%5D2.0.CO;2 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> Culver et al. themselves noted microsatellite variation in the Florida panther, possibly due to inbreeding;<ref name=Culver/> responding to the research, one conservation team suggests "the degree to which the scientific community has accepted the results of Culver et al. and the proposed change in taxonomy is not resolved at this time."<ref name=FloridaRecovery> The Florida Panther Recovery Team
(January 31, 2006) . Florida Panther Recovery Program (Draft) (PDF) . U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
. Retrieved on 2007-06-11. </ref>//www.wildlifejournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-pdf&file=i0022-541X-70-1-1.pdf |title=Improving The Use Of Science In Conservation: Lessons From The Florida Panther |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=1-7 |doi=10.2193/0022-541X(2006)70%5B1:ITUOSI%5D2.0.CO;2 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> Culver et al. themselves noted microsatellite variation in the Florida panther, possibly due to inbreeding;<ref name=Culver/> responding to the research, one conservation team suggests "the degree to which the scientific community has accepted the results of Culver et al. and the proposed change in taxonomy is not resolved at this time."<ref name=FloridaRecovery> The Florida Panther Recovery Team
(January 31, 2006) . Florida Panther Recovery Program (Draft) (PDF) . U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
. Retrieved on 2007-06-11. </ref>
Biology and behavior
Physical characteristics
www.tpwd.state.tx.us/huntwild/wild/species/mlion/ |title=Mountain Lion (Puma concolor) |accessdate=2007-03-30 |publisher=Texas Parks and Wildlife}}</ref><ref name="NY"> Eastern Cougar Fact Sheet
. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
. Retrieved on 2007-03-30. </ref> Males have an average weight of about 53 to 72 kilograms (115 to 160 pounds). In rare cases, some may reach over 120 kg (260 lb). Female average weight is between 34 and 48 kg (75 and 105 lb).<ref name="CAP">Modèle:Cite paper</ref> Cougar size is smallest close to the equator, and larger towards the poles.<ref name="diet">Modèle:Cite journal</ref>//www.tpwd.state.tx.us/huntwild/wild/species/mlion/ |title=Mountain Lion (Puma concolor) |accessdate=2007-03-30 |publisher=Texas Parks and Wildlife}}</ref><ref name="NY"> Eastern Cougar Fact Sheet
. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
. Retrieved on 2007-03-30. </ref> Males have an average weight of about 53 to 72 kilograms (115 to 160 pounds). In rare cases, some may reach over 120 kg (260 lb). Female average weight is between 34 and 48 kg (75 and 105 lb).<ref name="CAP">Modèle:Cite paper</ref> Cougar size is smallest close to the equator, and larger towards the poles.<ref name="diet">Modèle:Cite journal</ref>
www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?pid=1&id=87&cid=8 |title=Cougar |work=Hinterland Who's Who |accessdate=2007-05-22 |publisher=Canadian Wildlife Service and Canadian Wildlife Federation}}</ref>//www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?pid=1&id=87&cid=8 |title=Cougar |work=Hinterland Who's Who |accessdate=2007-05-22 |publisher=Canadian Wildlife Service and Canadian Wildlife Federation}}</ref>
www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1570911 |doi=10.1046/j.1469-7580.2002.00088.x |accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Like domestic cats, cougars vocalize low-pitched hisses, growls, and purrs, as well as chirps and whistles. They are well known for their screams, referenced in some of its common names, although these may often be the misinterpreted calls of other animals.<ref> About Eastern Cougars
. Eastern Cougar Foundation
. Retrieved on 2007-06-03. </ref>//www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1570911 |doi=10.1046/j.1469-7580.2002.00088.x |accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Like domestic cats, cougars vocalize low-pitched hisses, growls, and purrs, as well as chirps and whistles. They are well known for their screams, referenced in some of its common names, although these may often be the misinterpreted calls of other animals.<ref> About Eastern Cougars
. Eastern Cougar Foundation
. Retrieved on 2007-06-03. </ref>
www.news-tribune.net/features/cnhinsoutdoors_story_032111454.html |title=Black cougar more talk than fact |date=February 01, 2006|accessdate=2007-05-20 |publisher=Tahlequah Daily Press|quote=Game Warden: Never in the history of the United States has there ever been, in captivity or in the wild, a documented black mountain lion}}</ref> The term "black panther" is used colloquially to refer to melanistic individuals of other species, particularly jaguars and leopards.<ref> Mutant Pumas
.</ref>//www.news-tribune.net/features/cnhinsoutdoors_story_032111454.html |title=Black cougar more talk than fact |date=February 01, 2006|accessdate=2007-05-20 |publisher=Tahlequah Daily Press|quote=Game Warden: Never in the history of the United States has there ever been, in captivity or in the wild, a documented black mountain lion}}</ref> The term "black panther" is used colloquially to refer to melanistic individuals of other species, particularly jaguars and leopards.<ref> Mutant Pumas
.</ref>
www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-puma.html |title=Mountain Lion (Puma, Cougar) |accessdate=2007-04-02 |work=San Diego Zoo.org |publisher=Zoological Society of San Diego}}</ref> Horizontal jumping capability is suggested anywhere from 6 to 12 m (20 to 40 ft). The cougar can run as fast as 55 km/h (35 mph),<ref name="CanGeo"> Cougars in Canada (Just the Facts)
. Canadian Geographic Magazine
. Retrieved on 2007-04-02. </ref> but is best adapted for short, powerful sprints rather than long chases. It is adept at climbing, which allows it to evade canine competitors. Although it is not strongly associated with water, it can swim.<ref name="Sierra"> Mountain Lion, Puma concolor
. Sierra Club
. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. </ref>//www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-puma.html |title=Mountain Lion (Puma, Cougar) |accessdate=2007-04-02 |work=San Diego Zoo.org |publisher=Zoological Society of San Diego}}</ref> Horizontal jumping capability is suggested anywhere from 6 to 12 m (20 to 40 ft). The cougar can run as fast as 55 km/h (35 mph),<ref name="CanGeo"> Cougars in Canada (Just the Facts)
. Canadian Geographic Magazine
. Retrieved on 2007-04-02. </ref> but is best adapted for short, powerful sprints rather than long chases. It is adept at climbing, which allows it to evade canine competitors. Although it is not strongly associated with water, it can swim.<ref name="Sierra"> Mountain Lion, Puma concolor
. Sierra Club
. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. </ref>
Hunting and diet
www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/wolves.htm |accessdate=2007-04-08}}
* Holly Akenson, James Akenson, Howard Quigley
. Winter Predation and Interactions of Wolves and Cougars on Panther Creek in Central Idaho
.
* John K. Oakleaf, Curt Mack, Dennis L. Murray
. Winter Predation and Interactions of Cougars and Wolves in the Central Idaho Wilderness
.</ref> Another study on winter kills (November–April) in Alberta showed that ungulates accounted for greater than 99% of the cougar diet. Learned, individual prey recognition was observed, as some cougars rarely killed bighorn sheep, while others relied heavily on the species. The cougar also has conflicts with species such as Black Bear, as in many cases the bear will consume cougar kills, forcing the cougar to kill larger than normal numbers of prey animals.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>//www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/wolves.htm |accessdate=2007-04-08}}
* Holly Akenson, James Akenson, Howard Quigley
. Winter Predation and Interactions of Wolves and Cougars on Panther Creek in Central Idaho
.
* John K. Oakleaf, Curt Mack, Dennis L. Murray
. Winter Predation and Interactions of Cougars and Wolves in the Central Idaho Wilderness
.</ref> Another study on winter kills (November–April) in Alberta showed that ungulates accounted for greater than 99% of the cougar diet. Learned, individual prey recognition was observed, as some cougars rarely killed bighorn sheep, while others relied heavily on the species. The cougar also has conflicts with species such as Black Bear, as in many cases the bear will consume cougar kills, forcing the cougar to kill larger than normal numbers of prey animals.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>
In the Central and South American cougar range, the ratio of deer in the diet declines. Small to mid-size mammals are preferred, including large rodents such as the capybara. Ungulates accounted for only 35% of prey items in one survey, approximately half that of North America. Competition with the larger jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items.<ref name="diet"/> Other listed prey species of the cougar include mice, porcupine, and hares. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south, but this is rarely recorded in North America.<ref name="diet"/>
Though capable of sprinting, the cougar is typically an ambush predator. It stalks through brush and trees, across ledges, or other covered spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite. It has a flexible spine which aids its killing technique.
www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1894%2F0038-4909(2005)050%5B0466%3ASBIP%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |accessdate=2007-05-09}}</ref>//www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1894%2F0038-4909(2005)050%5B0466%3ASBIP%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |accessdate=2007-05-09}}</ref>
Reproduction and lifecycle
www.wildlife.utah.gov/pdf/cmgtplan.pdf |title=Utah Cougar Management Plan (Draft) |accessdate=2007-05-02 |author=Cougar Discussion Group |date=January 27, 1999 |year= |month= |format=PDF |work= |publisher=Utah Division of Wildlife Resources}}</ref> the period can be as short as one year.<ref name="CAP"/> Females are in estrus for approximately 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period is approximately 91 days.<ref name="CAP"/> Females are sometimes reported as monogamous,<ref name="CanGeo"/> but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common.<ref name="UWSP"> Matthew Hamilton
; Peter Hundt, Ryan Piorkowski
. Mountain Lions . University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point
. Retrieved on 2007-05-10. </ref> Copulation is brief but frequent.//www.wildlife.utah.gov/pdf/cmgtplan.pdf |title=Utah Cougar Management Plan (Draft) |accessdate=2007-05-02 |author=Cougar Discussion Group |date=January 27, 1999 |year= |month= |format=PDF |work= |publisher=Utah Division of Wildlife Resources}}</ref> the period can be as short as one year.<ref name="CAP"/> Females are in estrus for approximately 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period is approximately 91 days.<ref name="CAP"/> Females are sometimes reported as monogamous,<ref name="CanGeo"/> but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common.<ref name="UWSP"> Matthew Hamilton
; Peter Hundt, Ryan Piorkowski
. Mountain Lions . University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point
. Retrieved on 2007-05-10. </ref> Copulation is brief but frequent.
Only females are involved in parenting. Female cougars are fiercely protective of their kittens, and have been seen to successfully fight off animals as large as grizzly bears in their defense. Litter size is between one and six kittens, typically two or three. Caves and other alcoves that offer protection are used as litter dens. Born blind, kittens are completely dependent on their mother at first, and begin to be weaned at around three months of age. As they grow, they begin to go out on forays with their mother, first visiting kill sites, and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own.<ref name="Utah"/> Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter.<ref name="CAP"/>
www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99079.x |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>//www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99079.x |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
jvi.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/77/17/9578 |accessdate=2007-05-22}}</ref>//jvi.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/77/17/9578 |accessdate=2007-05-22}}</ref>
Social structure and home range
Like almost all cats, the cougar is a solitary animal. Only mothers and kittens live in groups, with adults meeting only to mate. It is secretive and crepuscular, being most active around dawn and dusk.
Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly. homepages.dordt.edu/~mahaffy/mtlion/mtlionshort_behaviour.html |title=Behavior of cougar in Iowa and the Midwest |accessdate=2007-05-11 |last=Mahaffy |first=James |year=2004 |month=December |publisher=Dordt College}}</ref> Male ranges may include or overlap with those of females but, at least where studied, not with those of other males, which serves to reduce conflict between cougars. Ranges of females may overlap slightly with each other. Scrape marks, urine, and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates. Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory.<ref name="Sierra"/>//homepages.dordt.edu/~mahaffy/mtlion/mtlionshort_behaviour.html |title=Behavior of cougar in Iowa and the Midwest |accessdate=2007-05-11 |last=Mahaffy |first=James |year=2004 |month=December |publisher=Dordt College}}</ref> Male ranges may include or overlap with those of females but, at least where studied, not with those of other males, which serves to reduce conflict between cougars. Ranges of females may overlap slightly with each other. Scrape marks, urine, and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates. Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory.<ref name="Sierra"/>
Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance.<ref name="Utah"/> One female adjacent to the San Andreas mountains, for instance, was found with a large range of 215 km² (83 sq mi), necessitated by poor prey abundance.<ref name="Dispersal"/> Research has shown cougar abundances from 0.5 animals to as much as 7 (in one study in South America) per 100 km² (38 sq mi).<ref name="CAP"/>
www.sinapu.org/PDF/Front%20Range%20lion%20study.pdf |format=PDF |title=Mountain Lion (Puma concolor) study on Boulder Open Space |accessdate=2007-05-11 |date=March 22, 2007 |work=Letter to the Parks and Open Space Advisory Committee, Boulder, Colorado |publisher=Sinapu}}</ref>//www.sinapu.org/PDF/Front%20Range%20lion%20study.pdf |format=PDF |title=Mountain Lion (Puma concolor) study on Boulder Open Space |accessdate=2007-05-11 |date=March 22, 2007 |work=Letter to the Parks and Open Space Advisory Committee, Boulder, Colorado |publisher=Sinapu}}</ref>
Ecology
Distribution and habitat
The cougar has the largest range of any wild land animal in the Americas. Its range spans 110 degrees of latitude, from northern Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes. It is one of only three cat species, along with the bobcat and Canadian lynx, endemic to Canada.<ref name="WhosWho"/> Its wide distribution stems from its adaptability to virtually every habitat type: it is found in all forest types as well as in lowland and mountainous deserts. Studies show that the Cougar prefers regions with dense underbrush, but can live with little vegetation in open areas.<ref name="iucn"/> Its preferred habitats include precipitous canyons, escarpments, rim rocks, and dense brush.<ref name="Sierra"/>
www.naturalhistorymag.com/master.html?http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/0305/0305_selections.html |title=Bookshelf |last=Marschall |first=Laurence A. |date= |year=2005 |month=March |work=Natural Selections |publisher=Natural History Magazine |accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref> DNA evidence has suggested its presence in eastern North America,<ref> Belanger , Joe
(May 24, 2007) . DNA evidence of cougars found in southern Ontario . London Free Press
. Retrieved on 2007-06-05. </ref> while a consolidated map of cougar sightings shows numerous reports, from the mid-western Great Plains through to Eastern Canada.<ref> Board of Directors
(2004) . The "Big" Picture . The Cougar Network
. Retrieved on 2007-05-20.
The Cougar Network methodology is recognized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.</ref> The only unequivocally known eastern population is the Florida panther, which is critically endangered.//www.naturalhistorymag.com/master.html?http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/0305/0305_selections.html |title=Bookshelf |last=Marschall |first=Laurence A. |date= |year=2005 |month=March |work=Natural Selections |publisher=Natural History Magazine |accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref> DNA evidence has suggested its presence in eastern North America,<ref> Belanger , Joe
(May 24, 2007) . DNA evidence of cougars found in southern Ontario . London Free Press
. Retrieved on 2007-06-05. </ref> while a consolidated map of cougar sightings shows numerous reports, from the mid-western Great Plains through to Eastern Canada.<ref> Board of Directors
(2004) . The "Big" Picture . The Cougar Network
. Retrieved on 2007-05-20.
The Cougar Network methodology is recognized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.</ref> The only unequivocally known eastern population is the Florida panther, which is critically endangered.
South of the Rio Grande, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) lists the cat in every Central and South American country except Costa Rica and Panama.<ref name="iucn"/> While specific state and provincial statistics are often available in North America, much less is known about the cat in its southern range.<ref> www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=jaguar | title = Jaguar at the Online Etymology Dictionary | date = 2001 | publisher = Douglas Harper | accessdate = 2006-08-06}}</ref>//www.nwf.org/cats/pdfs/cougarfacts.pdf | format = PDF | title = Cougar facts | accessdate = 2007-05-20 | publisher=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref>
www.dfw.state.or.us/wildlife/cougar/ |title=Cougar Management Plan |accessdate=2007-05-20 |year=2006 |work=Wildlife Division: Wildlife Management Plans |publisher=Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife}}</ref> California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested, between 4,000 and 6,000.<ref name="California"> Mountain Lions in California
. California Department of Fish and Game
(2004)
. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. </ref>//www.dfw.state.or.us/wildlife/cougar/ |title=Cougar Management Plan |accessdate=2007-05-20 |year=2006 |work=Wildlife Division: Wildlife Management Plans |publisher=Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife}}</ref> California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested, between 4,000 and 6,000.<ref name="California"> Mountain Lions in California
. California Department of Fish and Game
(2004)
. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. </ref>
Ecological role
Aside from humans, no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild. The cat is not, however, the apex predator throughout much of its range. In its northern range, the cougar interacts with other powerful predators such as the brown bear and gray wolf (although a lone wolf poses little threat to an adult cougar). In the south, the cougar must compete with the larger jaguar.
dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/CW69-14-166-2002E.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-04-08 }}</ref>//dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/CW69-14-166-2002E.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-04-08 }}</ref>
www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A2158-2003May17¬Found=true |title=In Yellowstone, it's Carnivore Competition |last=Gugliotta |first=Guy |date=May 19, 2003 |publisher=Washington Post |accessdate=April 9, 2007}}</ref> Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities, and disrupting the feline's behavior. Preliminary research in Yellowstone, for instance, has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves.<ref> Overview: Gray Wolves
. Greater Yellowstone Learning Center
. Retrieved on 2007-04-09. </ref> One researcher in Oregon notes: "When there is a pack around, cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens … A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf, but the pack phenomenon changes the table."<ref> Cockle , Richard
(October 29, 2006) . Turf wars in Idaho's wilderness . The Oregonian
. Retrieved on April 9, 2007. </ref> Both species, meanwhile, are capable of killing mid-sized predators such as bobcats and coyotes and tend to suppress their numbers.<ref name="Yellowstone"/>//www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A2158-2003May17¬Found=true |title=In Yellowstone, it's Carnivore Competition |last=Gugliotta |first=Guy |date=May 19, 2003 |publisher=Washington Post |accessdate=April 9, 2007}}</ref> Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities, and disrupting the feline's behavior. Preliminary research in Yellowstone, for instance, has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves.<ref> Overview: Gray Wolves
. Greater Yellowstone Learning Center
. Retrieved on 2007-04-09. </ref> One researcher in Oregon notes: "When there is a pack around, cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens … A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf, but the pack phenomenon changes the table."<ref> Cockle , Richard
(October 29, 2006) . Turf wars in Idaho's wilderness . The Oregonian
. Retrieved on April 9, 2007. </ref> Both species, meanwhile, are capable of killing mid-sized predators such as bobcats and coyotes and tend to suppress their numbers.<ref name="Yellowstone"/>
www.ecology.info/ecology-jaguar-puma.htm |first=Paul |last=Hamdig |title=Sympatric Jaguar and Puma |publisher=Ecology Online Sweden |accessdate=August 30 |accessyear=2006}}</ref> The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap, reducing the cougar's size.<ref name="diet"/> Of the two felines, the cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey.<ref name="foodhabits">Modèle:Cite journal</ref>//www.ecology.info/ecology-jaguar-puma.htm |first=Paul |last=Hamdig |title=Sympatric Jaguar and Puma |publisher=Ecology Online Sweden |accessdate=August 30 |accessyear=2006}}</ref> The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap, reducing the cougar's size.<ref name="diet"/> Of the two felines, the cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey.<ref name="foodhabits">Modèle:Cite journal</ref>
rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?journal=cjz&volume=80&year=&issue=&msno=z02-025&calyLang=fra |accessdate=2007-05-20 |quote=}}</ref> The Vancouver Island Marmot, an endangered species endemic to one region of dense cougar population, has seen decreased numbers due to cougar and gray wolf predation.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>//rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?journal=cjz&volume=80&year=&issue=&msno=z02-025&calyLang=fra |accessdate=2007-05-20 |quote=}}</ref> The Vancouver Island Marmot, an endangered species endemic to one region of dense cougar population, has seen decreased numbers due to cougar and gray wolf predation.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>
Conservation status
www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |title=Appendices I, II and III |accessdate=2007-05-24 |publisher=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora}}</ref> rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts.//www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |title=Appendices I, II and III |accessdate=2007-05-24 |publisher=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora}}</ref> rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts.
www.fws.gov/endangered/i/a/saa48.html |title=Eastern Cougar |accessdate=2007-05-20 | work=Endangered and Threatened Species of the Southeastern United States (The Red Book)| year=1991 |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service}}</ref><ref> Florida Panther
. Endangered and Threatened Species of the Southeastern United States (The Red Book) . U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1993)
. Retrieved on 2007-06-07. </ref> Certain taxonomic authorities have collapsed both designations into the North American Cougar, with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized,<ref name="MSW3"/> while a subspecies designation remains recognized by some conservation scientists.<ref name=improving/> The most recent documented count for the Florida sub-population is 87 individuals, reported by recovery agencies in 2003.<ref> Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2002–2003 Panther Genetic Restoration Annual Report
(PDF)
. Retrieved on 2007-06-05. </ref>//www.fws.gov/endangered/i/a/saa48.html |title=Eastern Cougar |accessdate=2007-05-20 | work=Endangered and Threatened Species of the Southeastern United States (The Red Book)| year=1991 |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service}}</ref><ref> Florida Panther
. Endangered and Threatened Species of the Southeastern United States (The Red Book) . U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1993)
. Retrieved on 2007-06-07. </ref> Certain taxonomic authorities have collapsed both designations into the North American Cougar, with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized,<ref name="MSW3"/> while a subspecies designation remains recognized by some conservation scientists.<ref name=improving/> The most recent documented count for the Florida sub-population is 87 individuals, reported by recovery agencies in 2003.<ref> Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2002–2003 Panther Genetic Restoration Annual Report
(PDF)
. Retrieved on 2007-06-05. </ref>
The cougar is also protected across much of the rest of its range. As of 1996, cougar hunting was prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Venezuela, and Uruguay. (Costa Rica and Panama are not listed as current range countries by the IUCN.) The cat had no reported legal protection in Ecuador, El Salvador, and Guyana.<ref name="CAP"/> Regulated cougar hunting is still common in the United States and Canada; it is permitted in every U.S. state from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of California. Cougars are generally hunted with packs of dogs, until the animal is 'treed'. When the hunter arrives on the scene, he shoots it from the tree at close range. The Cougar cannot be legally killed in California except under very specific circumstances, such as when an individual is declared a public safety threat.<ref name="California"/>
links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0888-8892%28199303%297%3A1%3C94%3ADMHAAH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage |accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref>//links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0888-8892%28199303%297%3A1%3C94%3ADMHAAH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage |accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref>
Attacks on humans
www.wemjournal.org/wmsonline/?request=get-document&issn=1080-6032&volume=014&issue=03&page=0169 |accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Attacks on people, livestock, and pets may occur when the cat habituates to humans. There have been 108 confirmed attacks on humans with twenty fatalities in North America since 1890, fifty of the incidents having occurred since 1991.<ref> Confirmed mountain lion attacks in the United States and Canada 1890 — Present
. Arizona Game and Fish
. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. </ref><ref name="Beier"> Beier , Paul
(1991) . Cougar attacks on humans in United States and Canada . Wildlife Society Bulletin . Northern Arizon University
. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. </ref> The heavily populated state of California has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 (after just three from 1890 to 1985), including three fatalities.<ref name="California"/> Attacks are most frequent during late spring and summer, when juvenile cougars leave their mothers and search for new territory.<ref name="GovBC"/>//www.wemjournal.org/wmsonline/?request=get-document&issn=1080-6032&volume=014&issue=03&page=0169 |accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Attacks on people, livestock, and pets may occur when the cat habituates to humans. There have been 108 confirmed attacks on humans with twenty fatalities in North America since 1890, fifty of the incidents having occurred since 1991.<ref> Confirmed mountain lion attacks in the United States and Canada 1890 — Present
. Arizona Game and Fish
. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. </ref><ref name="Beier"> Beier , Paul
(1991) . Cougar attacks on humans in United States and Canada . Wildlife Society Bulletin . Northern Arizon University
. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. </ref> The heavily populated state of California has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 (after just three from 1890 to 1985), including three fatalities.<ref name="California"/> Attacks are most frequent during late spring and summer, when juvenile cougars leave their mothers and search for new territory.<ref name="GovBC"/>
www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/cougsf.htm |title=Safety Guide to Cougars |work=Environmental Stewardship Division |date=1991 |accessdate=2007-05-28 |publisher=Government of British Columbia, Ministry of Environment}}</ref>//www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/cougsf.htm |title=Safety Guide to Cougars |work=Environmental Stewardship Division |date=1991 |accessdate=2007-05-28 |publisher=Government of British Columbia, Ministry of Environment}}</ref>
When the cougar does attack, it usually employs its characteristic neck bite, attempting to position its teeth between the vertebrae and into the spinal cord. Neck, head, and spinal injuries are common and sometimes fatal.<ref name="Med"/> Children are at greatest risk of attack, and least likely to survive an encounter. Detailed research into attacks prior to 1991 showed that 64% of all victimsModèle:Ndash and almost all fatalitiesModèle:Ndash were children. The same study showed the highest proportion of attacks to have occurred in British Columbia, particularly on Vancouver Island where cougar populations are especially dense.<ref name="Beier"/>
Hybrids
A pumapard is a hybrid animal resulting from a union between a cougar and a leopard. Three sets of these hybrids were bred in the late 1890s and early 1900s by Carl Hagenbeck at his animal park in Hamburg, Germany. Most did not reach adulthood. One of these was purchased in 1898 by Berlin Zoo. A similar hybrid in Berlin Zoo purchased from Carl Hagenbeck was a cross between a male leopard and a female puma. Hamburg Zoo's specimen was the reverse pairing, the one in the black and white photo, fathered by a puma bred to an Indian leopardess. Whether born to a female Puma mated to a male Leopard, or to a male Puma mated to a female Leopard, pumapards inherit a form of dwarfism. Those reported grew to only half the size of the parents. They have a Puma-like long body (proportional to the limbs, but nevertheless shorter than either parent), but short legs. The coat is variously described as sandy, tawny or greyish with brown, chestnut or "faded" rosettes.[citation needed]
In mythology and culture
folklore.ee/folklore/vol12/inca.htm |coauthors=Kait Realo (translator) |title=On the role of Creation and Origin Myths in the Development of Inca State and Religion |accessdate=2007-05-22 |work=Electronic Journal of Folklore|publisher=Estonian Folklore Institute}}</ref>//folklore.ee/folklore/vol12/inca.htm |coauthors=Kait Realo (translator) |title=On the role of Creation and Origin Myths in the Development of Inca State and Religion |accessdate=2007-05-22 |work=Electronic Journal of Folklore|publisher=Estonian Folklore Institute}}</ref>
www.hotcakencyclopedia.com/ho.FourStepsOfCougar.html |title=The Four Steps of the Cougar |accessdate=2007-05-22 |work=Electronic Journal of Folklore |editor=Richard L. Dieterle |publisher=The Encyclopedia of Hotcâk (Winnebago) Mythology}}</ref> and the Cheyenne, amongst others. To the Apache and Walapai of Arizona, the wail of the Cougar was harbinger of death.<ref> Living with Wildlife: Cougars
(PDF) . USDA Wildlife Services
. Retrieved on 2007-05-22. </ref>//www.hotcakencyclopedia.com/ho.FourStepsOfCougar.html |title=The Four Steps of the Cougar |accessdate=2007-05-22 |work=Electronic Journal of Folklore |editor=Richard L. Dieterle |publisher=The Encyclopedia of Hotcâk (Winnebago) Mythology}}</ref> and the Cheyenne, amongst others. To the Apache and Walapai of Arizona, the wail of the Cougar was harbinger of death.<ref> Living with Wildlife: Cougars
(PDF) . USDA Wildlife Services
. Retrieved on 2007-05-22. </ref>
The cougar continues to be a symbol of strength and stealth. From combat helicopters, motor vehicles (see Ford/Mercury Cougar and Ford Puma) to athletic shoes, both "Cougar" and "Puma" are widely used as brand names. Various sports teams have also adopted the names, including the Argentina National Rugby Union Team. Many places, such as Cougar Mountain, are also named after their association with cougars.
See also
Notes and references
Bibliography
External links
dir.salon.com/story/people/feature/2002/02/12/cougar/index.html?pn=2 Description of a Cougar attack]//dir.salon.com/story/people/feature/2002/02/12/cougar/index.html?pn=2 Description of a Cougar attack] dir.salon.com/story/people/feature/2002/02/12/cougar/index.html?pn=2 Description of a Cougar attack]//depts.washington.edu/natmap/facts/cougar_712.html Cougar Facts - NatureMapping Program]Modèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA
br:Puma bg:Пума ca:Puma cs:Puma americká da:Puma de:Puma es:Puma concolor eo:Pumo fa:شیر کوهی fr:Puma ko:퓨마 hr:Puma it:Puma concolor he:פומה jv:Puma ka:პუმა la:Puma lt:Puma hu:Puma mk:Пума nah:Miztli nl:Poema ja:ピューマ no:Fjelløve nn:Puma nv:Náshdóítsoh pl:Puma pt:Suçuarana qu:Puma ru:Пума simple:Puma sk:Puma americká sl:Puma fi:Puuma sv:Puma vi:Báo sư tử tr:Puma wa:Puma zh-yue:美洲獅 zh:美洲狮
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