Nuclear weapon
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Modèle:Nuclear weapons A nuclear weapon derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions of fusion or fission. As a result, even a nuclear weapon with a small yield is significantly more powerful than the largest conventional explosives, and a single weapon is capable of destroying an entire city.
In the history of warfare, two nuclear weapons have been detonated — both by the United States, during the closing days of World War II. The first was detonated on the morning of 6 August 1945, when the United States dropped a uranium gun-type device code-named "Little Boy" on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The second was detonated three days later when the United States dropped a plutonium implosion-type device code-named "Fat Man" on the city of Nagasaki. These bombings resulted in the immediate deaths of around 120,000 people from injuries sustained from the explosion and acute radiation sickness, and even more deaths over time from long-term effects of radiation. The use of these weapons was and remains controversial. (See Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki for a full discussion.)
Since the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for testing purposes and demonstration purposes. The only countries known to have detonated such weapons are (chronologically) the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, the People's Republic of China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea.
Various other countries may hold nuclear weapons but have never publicly admitted possession, or their claims to possession have not been verified. For example, Israel has modern airborne delivery systems and appears to have an extensive nuclear program with hundreds of warheads (see Israel and weapons of mass destruction), though it officially maintains a policy of "ambiguity" with respect to its actual possession of nuclear weapons. According to some estimates, it possesses as many as 200 nuclear warheads. Iran currently stands accused by the United States of attempting to develop nuclear weapons capabilities, though its government states that its acknowledged nuclear activities, such as uranium enrichment, are for non-weapons purposes. South Africa also secretly developed a small nuclear arsenal, but disassembled it in the early 1990s. (For more information see List of states with nuclear weapons.)
Apart from their use as weapons, nuclear explosives have been tested and used for various non-military uses. Synthetic elements, such as einsteinium and fermium, created by neutron bombardment of uranium and plutonium during thermonuclear explosions, were discovered in the aftermath of the first hydrogen bomb test.
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History
www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/TrinitySite/trinph.htm |title=Trinity Site Pamphlet |publisher=White Sands Missile Range |accessdate=2007-08-15}}</ref> The Soviet Union developed and tested their first nuclear weapon in 1949, based partially on information obtained from Soviet espionage in the United States. Both the U.S. and USSR would go on to develop weapons powered by nuclear fusion (hydrogen bombs) by the mid-1950s. With the invention of reliable rocketry during the 1960s, it became possible for nuclear weapons to be delivered anywhere in the world on a very short notice, and the two Cold War superpowers adopted a strategy of deterrence to maintain a shaky peace.<ref>Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986.</ref>//www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/TrinitySite/trinph.htm |title=Trinity Site Pamphlet |publisher=White Sands Missile Range |accessdate=2007-08-15}}</ref> The Soviet Union developed and tested their first nuclear weapon in 1949, based partially on information obtained from Soviet espionage in the United States. Both the U.S. and USSR would go on to develop weapons powered by nuclear fusion (hydrogen bombs) by the mid-1950s. With the invention of reliable rocketry during the 1960s, it became possible for nuclear weapons to be delivered anywhere in the world on a very short notice, and the two Cold War superpowers adopted a strategy of deterrence to maintain a shaky peace.<ref>Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986.</ref>
www.nytimes.com/2006/10/29/magazine/29islam.html Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age]," New York Times Magazine (29 October 2006).</ref>//www.nytimes.com/2006/10/29/magazine/29islam.html Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age]," New York Times Magazine (29 October 2006).</ref>
www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/missileers/falsealarms.html |title=False Alarms on the Nuclear Front |publisher=Nova Online |date=October 2001 |accessdate=2006-03-05}}</ref> Additionally, during the Cold War the U.S. and USSR came close to nuclear warfare several times, most notably during the Cuban Missile Crisis. As of 2006, there are estimated to be at least 27,000 nuclear weapons held by at least eight countries, 96 percent of them in the possession of the United States and Russia.<ref>Norris, Robert S., and Hans M. Kristensen. "Global nuclear stockpiles, 1945-2006", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62, no. 4 (July/August 2006), 64-66.</ref>//www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/missileers/falsealarms.html |title=False Alarms on the Nuclear Front |publisher=Nova Online |date=October 2001 |accessdate=2006-03-05}}</ref> Additionally, during the Cold War the U.S. and USSR came close to nuclear warfare several times, most notably during the Cuban Missile Crisis. As of 2006, there are estimated to be at least 27,000 nuclear weapons held by at least eight countries, 96 percent of them in the possession of the United States and Russia.<ref>Norris, Robert S., and Hans M. Kristensen. "Global nuclear stockpiles, 1945-2006", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62, no. 4 (July/August 2006), 64-66.</ref>
Nuclear weapons have been at the heart of many national and international political disputes and have played a major part in popular culture since their dramatic public debut in the 1940s and have usually symbolized the ultimate ability of mankind to utilize the strength of nature for destruction. Dozens of movies, books, television shows, plays, and other cultural productions have been made with nuclear weapons as either the explicit subject or an implied leitmotiv.<ref>Weart, Spencer R. Nuclear Fear: A History of Images. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988; Boyer, Paul S. By the bomb’s early light: American thought and culture at the dawn of the atomic age. New York: Pantheon, 1985.</ref>
Types of nuclear weapons
There are two basic types of nuclear weapons. The first are weapons which produce their explosive energy through nuclear fission reactions alone. These are known colloquially as atomic bombs, A-bombs, or fission bombs. In fission weapons, a mass of fissile material (enriched uranium or plutonium) is assembled into a supercritical mass—the amount of material needed to start an exponentially growing nuclear chain reaction—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the "gun" method), or by compressing a sub-critical sphere of material using chemical explosives to many times its original density (the "implosion" method). The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former, and only the latter approach can be used if plutonium is the fissile material used.
A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range between the equivalent of less than a ton of TNT upwards to around 500,000 tons (500 kilotons) of TNT.<ref name="Hansen">The best overall printed sources on nuclear weapons design are: Hansen, Chuck. U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. San Antonio, TX: Aerofax, 1988; and the more-updated Hansen, Chuck. Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications, 1995.</ref>
The second basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large amount of its energy through nuclear fusion reactions, and can be over a thousand times more powerful than fission bombs as fusion reactions release much more energy per unit of mass than fission reactions. These are known as hydrogen bombs, H-bombs, thermonuclear bombs, or fusion bombs. Only six countries—United States, Russia, United Kingdom, People's Republic of China, France, and India—have detonated hydrogen bombs.
nuclearweaponarchive.org/ |last=Sublette |first=Carey |title=The Nuclear Weapon Archive |accessdate=2007-03-07}}</ref>//nuclearweaponarchive.org/ |last=Sublette |first=Carey |title=The Nuclear Weapon Archive |accessdate=2007-03-07}}</ref>
There are other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a boosted fission weapon is a fission bomb which increases its explosive yield through a small amount of fusion reactions, but it is not a hydrogen bomb. In the boosted bomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb. Some weapons are designed for special purposes; a neutron bomb is a nuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of radiation; such a device could theoretically be used to cause massive casualties while leaving infrastructure mostly intact and creating a minimal amount of fallout. The detonation of a nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of neutron radiation. Surrounding a nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as cobalt or gold) creates a weapon known as a salted bomb. This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of radioactive contamination. Most variety in nuclear weapon design is in different yields of nuclear weapons for different types of purposes, and in manipulating design elements to attempt to make weapons extremely small.<ref name="Hansen" />
Nuclear strategy
Nuclear warfare strategy is a way for either fighting or avoiding a nuclear war. The policy of trying to ward off a potential attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of nuclear deterrence. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike status (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for first strike status (the ability to completely destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the Cold War, policy and military theorists in nuclear-enabled countries worked out models of what sorts of policies could prevent one from ever being attacked by a nuclear weapon.
Different forms of nuclear weapons delivery (see below) allow for different types of nuclear strategy, primarily by making it difficult to defend against them and difficult to launch a pre-emptive strike against them. Sometimes this has meant keeping the weapon locations hidden, such as putting them on submarines or train cars whose locations are very hard for an enemy to track, and other times this means burying them in hardened bunkers. Other responses have included attempts to make it seem likely that the country could survive a nuclear attack, by using missile defense (to destroy the missiles before they land) or by means of civil defense (using early warning systems to evacuate citizens to a safe area before an attack). Note that weapons which are designed to threaten large populations or to generally deter attacks are known as "strategic" weapons. Weapons which are designed to actually be used on a battlefield in military situations are known as "tactical" weapons.
There are critics of the very idea of "nuclear strategy" for waging nuclear war who have suggested that a nuclear war between two nuclear powers would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is purely to deter war because any nuclear war would immediately escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism.
Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. The use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, according to an advisory opinion issued by the International Court of Justice in 1996.
Perhaps the most controversial idea in nuclear strategy is that nuclear proliferation would be desirable. This view argues that unlike conventional weapons nuclear weapons successfully deter all-out war between states, as they did during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Political scientist Kenneth Waltz is the most prominent advocate of this argument.
Weapons delivery
www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/figure1.htm Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940-1996], an excerpt from the book.</ref>//www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/figure1.htm Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940-1996], an excerpt from the book.</ref>
Historically the first method of delivery, and the method used in the two nuclear weapons actually used in warfare, is as a gravity bomb, dropped from bomber aircraft. This method is usually the first developed by countries as it does not place many restrictions on the size of the weapon, and weapon miniaturization is something which requires considerable weapons design knowledge. It does, however, limit the range of attack, the response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons which can be fielded at any given time. Additionally, specialized delivery systems are usually not necessary; especially with the advent of miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both strategic bombers and tactical fighter-bombers, allowing an air force to use its current fleet with little or no modification. This method may still be considered the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, are represented in free-fall gravity bombs, namely the B61.<ref name="Hansen"/>
More preferable from a strategic point of view are nuclear weapons mounted onto a missile, which can use a ballistic trajectory to deliver a warhead over the horizon. While even short range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) has allowed some nations to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success. More advanced systems, such as multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs) allow multiple warheads to be launched at several targets from any one missile, reducing the chance of any successful missile defense. Today, missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile, though, can be a difficult task.<ref name="Hansen"/>
Tactical weapons (see above) have involved the most variety of delivery types, including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also artillery shells, land mines, and nuclear depth charges and torpedoes for anti-submarine warfare. An atomic mortar was also tested at one time by the United States. Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as suitcase bombs), such as the Special Atomic Demolition Munition, have been developed, although the difficulty to combine sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility.<ref name="Hansen"/>
Governance, control, and law
Because of the immense military power they can confer, the political control of nuclear weapons has been a key issue for as long as they have existed; in most countries the use of nuclear force can only be authorized by the head of government.
In the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust prohibited the United States and the Soviet Union from making ground towards international arms control agreements, but by the 1960s steps were being taken to limit both the proliferation of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of nuclear testing. The Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) restricted all nuclear testing to underground nuclear testing, to prevent contamination from nuclear fallout, while the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities which signatories could participate in, with the goal of allowing the transference of non-military nuclear technology to member countries without fear of proliferation. In 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established under the mandate of the United Nations in order to encourage the development of the peaceful applications of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. In 1996, many nations signed and ratified the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons, which would impose a significant hindrance to their development by any complying country.<ref name="Richelson"/>
Additional treaties have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between individual countries, such as the SALT I and START I treaties, which limited the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the U.S.S.R.
Nuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Treaty of Pelindaba (1964) prohibits nuclear weapons in many African countries. As recently as 2006 a Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone was established amongst the former Soviet republics of Central Asia prohibiting nuclear weapons.
In 1996, the International Court of Justice, the highest court of the United Nations, issued an Advisory Opinion concerned with the "Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons". The court ruled that the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons would violate various articles of international law, including the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions, the UN Charter, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Media
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See also
- More technical details
- History
- Related technology and science
- Military strategy
- Proliferation and politics
- Nuclear proliferation
- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
- Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
- Nuclear disarmament
- Three Non-Nuclear Principles of Japan
- International Court of Justice advisory opinion on legality of nuclear weapons
- List of countries with nuclear weapons
- Nuclear weapons and the United States
- Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom
- List of nuclear weapons
- Popular culture
- Aftermath
Notes
References
- Bethe, Hans Albrecht. The Road from Los Alamos. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. ISBN 0-671-74012-1
- DeVolpi, Alexander, Minkov, Vladimir E., Simonenko, Vadim A., and Stanford, George S. Nuclear Shadowboxing: Contemporary Threats from Cold War Weaponry. Fidlar Doubleday, 2004
www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/ The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition).] Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. Available online (PDF).//www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/ The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition).] Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. Available online (PDF). www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/dod/fm8-9/1toc.htm NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I - Nuclear)]. Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force: Washington, D.C., 1996//www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/dod/fm8-9/1toc.htm NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I - Nuclear)]. Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force: Washington, D.C., 1996
- Hansen, Chuck. U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988
www.uscoldwar.com/]//www.uscoldwar.com/]
- Holloway, David. Stalin and the Bomb. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-300-06056-4
www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/index.shtml The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]" (1946)//www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/index.shtml The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]" (1946) www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/SmythReport/index.shtml Atomic Energy for Military Purposes.] Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945. (Smyth Report – the first declassified report by the US government on nuclear weapons)//www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/SmythReport/index.shtml Atomic Energy for Military Purposes.] Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945. (Smyth Report – the first declassified report by the US government on nuclear weapons) www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/dod/fm8-9/1toc.htm NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I - Nuclear)]. Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force: Washington, D.C., 1996//www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/7906/index.html The Effects of Nuclear War]. Office of Technology Assessment, May 1979.
- Rhodes, Richard. Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0-684-82414-0
- Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986 ISBN 0-684-81378-5
- Weart, Spencer R. Nuclear Fear: A History of Images. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988.
External links
Modèle:Wikinewscat Modèle:Spoken Wikipedia
- Current World Nuclear Arsenals
www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.
- General
www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//nuclearweaponarchive.org/ Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette] is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources and an informative FAQ. fas.org Federation of American Scientists] provide solid information on weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons and their effects//fas.org Federation of American Scientists] provide solid information on weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons and their effects www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//alsos.wlu.edu/ Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues] – contains many resources related to nuclear weapons, including a historical and technical overview and searchable bibliography of web and print resources. www.newscientist.com/channel/mech-tech/nuclear Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology] — Provided by New Scientist.//www.newscientist.com/channel/mech-tech/nuclear Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology] — Provided by New Scientist. www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=nuclear+weapons&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Nuclear weapons] sonicbomb.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=39 US, Soviet, UK, Chinese and French Nuclear Weapon Testing] at sonicbomb.com//sonicbomb.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=39 US, Soviet, UK, Chinese and French Nuclear Weapon Testing] at sonicbomb.com www.newscientist.com/channel/mech-tech/nuclear Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology] — Provided by New Scientist.//www.atomicforum.org AtomicForum.org] contains lots of information about weapons history and development
- Historical
www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.atomicarchive.com/History/mp/index.shtml The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb] at AtomicArchive.com www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.lanl.gov/history/ Los Alamos National Laboratory — History] (U.S. nuclear history) www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/ Race for the Superbomb], PBS website on the history of the H-bomb www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.nv.doe.gov/library/photos/default.htm U.S. nuclear test photographs] from the DOE Nevada Site Office www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.nv.doe.gov/library/films/default.htm U.S. nuclear test film clips] from the DOE Nevada Site Office
- Effects
www.newscientist.com/channel/mech-tech/nuclear Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology] — Provided by New Scientist.//www.peoplesarchive.com/browse/movies/2220/en/off/ Hans Bethe talking about his shock of seeing the after effects of Hiroshima] on Peoples Archive. www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.fas.org/main/content.jsp?formAction=297&contentId=367 Nuclear weapon simulator for several major US cities], from Federation of American Scientists www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//meyerweb.com/eric/tools/gmap/hydesim.html HYDESim: High-Yield Detonatonation Effects Simulator] Another Nuclear weapon simulator with a few more features based on the "The Effects of Nuclear Weapons", 3rd Edition, by Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan. www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.fas.org/main/content.jsp?formAction=297&contentId=426 Fallout Calculator for various regions], from Federation of American Scientists www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.atomicarchive.com/Example/index.shtml Example scenarios] – Two scenarios of a nuclear explosion on two United States cities, from AtomicArchive.com www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.bomb-shelter.net/Nuclear-Warfare-Weapons-Effects Effects of Nuclear weapons] These tables describe the effects of various nuclear blast sizes. All figures are for Modèle:Convert/mi/h winds. Thermal burns represent injuries to an unprotected person. The legend describes the data. www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.atomicarchive.com/Effects/index.shtml Effects of nuclear weapons] from AtomicArchive.com www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/effects/effects.shtml The Effects of Nuclear Weapons] by Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan (1977 edn.) — an official text of the US government on weapons effects which is generally considered definitive
- Issues
www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//us.oneworld.net/article/archive/7565 "The Nuclear Weapons Debate"] - OneWorld.net's Perspectives Magazine, May 2005 www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.neis.org/literature/Brochures/weapcon.htm "Nuclear Power and Nuclear Weapons: Making the Connections"] – an article about the connections between nuclear power and nuclear weapons development by an anti-nuclear group. www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/dod/fm8-9/1toc.htm NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I - Nuclear)]. Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force: Washington, D.C., 1996//www.oism.org/nwss/ Nuclear War Survival Skills] is a public domain text about civil defense. www.newscientist.com/channel/mech-tech/nuclear Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology] — Provided by New Scientist.//www.ippnw.org IPPNW: International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War] – Nobel Peace Prize-winning organization with information about the medical consequences of nuclear weapons, war and militarization. www.newscientist.com/channel/mech-tech/nuclear Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology] — Provided by New Scientist.//www.thebulletin.org Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists] – Magazine founded in 1945 by Manhattan Project scientists. Covers nuclear weapons proliferation and many other global security issues. See this page for comprehensive data on nuclear weapons worldwide. www.newscientist.com/channel/mech-tech/nuclear Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology] — Provided by New Scientist.//www.brook.edu/FP/PROJECTS/NUCWCOST/50.htm 50 Facts About U.S. Nuclear Weapons] – Largest, smallest, number, cost, etc. www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.nuclearfiles.org/ Nuclear Files.org] covers the history of nuclear weapons and explores the political, legal and ethical challenges of the Nuclear Age. www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.ucsusa.org/global_security/nuclear_weapons/ Union of Concerned Scientists] – Nuclear Policy, weapons, testing, technical issues, and arms control. www.cdi.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.html Current World Nuclear Arsenals] has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.//www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/nuclear/index.asp Nuclear Ambitions - The World's Deadly Arsenal] - Independent news on issues relating to nuclear weapons and disarmament by the news agency Inter Press Service
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