Russia
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Russia (Modèle:Lang-ru, Rossiya), also<ref>From Article 1 of The Constitution of the Russian Federation: "The names "Russian Federation" and "Russia" shall be equivalent."</ref> the Russian Federation (Росси́йская Федера́ция, Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; Modèle:Audio), is a transcontinental country extending over much of northern Eurasia. It is a semi-presidential republic comprising 85 federal subjects. Russia shares land borders with the following countries (anti-clockwise from northwest to southeast): Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and North Korea. It is also close to the U.S. state of Alaska, Sweden and Japan across relatively small stretches of water (the Bering Strait, the Baltic Sea, and La Pérouse Strait, respectively).
encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_22/Russia.html#howtocite Russia]," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007</ref> and is considered an energy superpower. It contains approximately one-quarter of the world's unfrozen fresh water and has the world's largest forest reserves.//encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_22/Russia.html#howtocite Russia]," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007</ref> and is considered an energy superpower. It contains approximately one-quarter of the world's unfrozen fresh water and has the world's largest forest reserves.
www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Kievan.html|work=Sam Houston State University|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium.<ref name = Curtis>Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. ISBN 0160612128.</ref> The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which//www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Kievan.html|work=Sam Houston State University|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium.<ref name = Curtis>Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. ISBN 0160612128.</ref> The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which gradually came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, Muscovy had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation and exploration to become the huge Russian Empire, stretching from Poland eastward to the Pacific Ocean.
www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109504</ref>//www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109504</ref>
Sommaire |
Geography
www.britannica.com/ebi/article-207542>.</ref> From north to south the East European Plain is clad sequentially in tundra, coniferous forest (taiga), mixed and broad-leaf forests, grassland (steppe), and semi-desert (fringing the Caspian Sea) as the changes in vegetation reflect the changes in climate. Siberia supports a similar sequence but is taiga. The country contains 23 World Heritage Sites<ref>Russian Federation UNESCO World Heritage Centre</ref> and 39 UNESCO Biosphere reserves.<ref>Russian Federation The World Network of Biosphere Reserves - UNESCO</ref>//www.britannica.com/ebi/article-207542>.</ref> From north to south the East European Plain is clad sequentially in tundra, coniferous forest (taiga), mixed and broad-leaf forests, grassland (steppe), and semi-desert (fringing the Caspian Sea) as the changes in vegetation reflect the changes in climate. Siberia supports a similar sequence but is taiga. The country contains 23 World Heritage Sites<ref>Russian Federation UNESCO World Heritage Centre</ref> and 39 UNESCO Biosphere reserves.<ref>Russian Federation The World Network of Biosphere Reserves - UNESCO</ref>
Topography
The two widest separated points in Russia are about 8,000 km (5,000 mi) apart along a geodesic line. These points are: the boundary with Poland on a 60 km long (40-mi long) spit of land separating the Gulf of Gdańsk from the Vistula Lagoon; and the farthest southeast of the Kurile Islands, a few miles off Hokkaidō Island, Japan. The points which are furthest separated in longitude are 6,600 km (4,100 mi) apart along a geodesic. These points are: in the West, the same spit; in the East, the Big Diomede Island (Ostrov Ratmanova). The Russian Federation spans 11 time zones.
www.borealforest.org/world/rus_mgmt.htm Forest Management in Russia]-Statistics about the Russian Forest Fund and Rosleskhoz (State Forest Service) as of January 1993 (published 1995)</ref> and is known as "the lungs of Europe,"<ref name=guardianforest>Nick Paton Walsh, It's Europe's lungs and home to many rare species. But to Russia it's £100bn of wood Guardian (UK)</ref> second only to the Amazon Rainforest in the amount of carbon dioxide it absorbs. It provides a huge amount of oxygen for not just Europe, but the world. With access to three of the world's oceans—the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific—Russian fishing fleets are a major contributor to the world's fish supply.<ref>Fish Industry of Russia - Production, Trade, Markets and Investment; Published by: Eurofish, Copenhagen, Denmark; Published in: August 2006; No. of pages: 211 [1]</ref> The Caspian is the source of what is considered the finest caviar in the world.//www.borealforest.org/world/rus_mgmt.htm Forest Management in Russia]-Statistics about the Russian Forest Fund and Rosleskhoz (State Forest Service) as of January 1993 (published 1995)</ref> and is known as "the lungs of Europe,"<ref name=guardianforest>Nick Paton Walsh, It's Europe's lungs and home to many rare species. But to Russia it's £100bn of wood Guardian (UK)</ref> second only to the Amazon Rainforest in the amount of carbon dioxide it absorbs. It provides a huge amount of oxygen for not just Europe, but the world. With access to three of the world's oceans—the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific—Russian fishing fleets are a major contributor to the world's fish supply.<ref>Fish Industry of Russia - Production, Trade, Markets and Investment; Published by: Eurofish, Copenhagen, Denmark; Published in: August 2006; No. of pages: 211 [2]</ref> The Caspian is the source of what is considered the finest caviar in the world.
en.rian.ru/analysis/20070713/68914201.html Russia's rural development program] Russian News & Information Agency</ref>//en.rian.ru/analysis/20070713/68914201.html Russia's rural development program] Russian News & Information Agency</ref>
www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.html|title=CIA World Factbook—Russia}}</ref> The Barents Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea, Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan are linked to Russia. Major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, the Franz Josef Land, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin. The Diomede Islands (one controlled by Russia, the other by the United States) are just three kilometers (1.9 mi) apart, and Kunashir Island (controlled by Russia but claimed by Japan) is about twenty kilometers (12 mi) from Hokkaidō.//www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.html|title=CIA World Factbook—Russia}}</ref> The Barents Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea, Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan are linked to Russia. Major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, the Franz Josef Land, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin. The Diomede Islands (one controlled by Russia, the other by the United States) are just three kilometers (1.9 mi) apart, and Kunashir Island (controlled by Russia but claimed by Japan) is about twenty kilometers (12 mi) from Hokkaidō.
marine.usgs.gov/fact-sheets/baikal/ Fact Sheet: Lake Baikal—A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies]</ref> Lake Baikal alone contains over one fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<ref>Lake Baikal - UNESCO World Heritage Centre [3]</ref> Of its 100,000 rivers,<ref> Angara River. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 14, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9007537</ref> The Volga is the most famous—not only because it is the longest river in Europe but also because of its major role in Russian history. Major lakes include Lake Baikal, Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega. Russia has a wide natural resource base including major deposits of petroleum, natural gas, coal, timber and mineral resources unmatched by any other country.<ref name=cia/><ref name=countrybrief>Russian Federation: Country Brief The World Bank</ref>//marine.usgs.gov/fact-sheets/baikal/ Fact Sheet: Lake Baikal—A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies]</ref> Lake Baikal alone contains over one fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<ref>Lake Baikal - UNESCO World Heritage Centre [4]</ref> Of its 100,000 rivers,<ref> Angara River. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 14, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9007537</ref> The Volga is the most famous—not only because it is the longest river in Europe but also because of its major role in Russian history. Major lakes include Lake Baikal, Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega. Russia has a wide natural resource base including major deposits of petroleum, natural gas, coal, timber and mineral resources unmatched by any other country.<ref name=cia/><ref name=countrybrief>Russian Federation: Country Brief The World Bank</ref>
Climate
countrystudies.us/russia/24.htm Climate] U.S. Library Of Congress</ref>//countrystudies.us/russia/24.htm Climate] U.S. Library Of Congress</ref>
www.springerlink.com/content/n877766450lk8p66/fulltext.pdf Ecological and Geographical Characteristics of the Coastal Zone of the Black Sea]. GeoJournal 27.2, 169–178.</ref> The continental interiors are the driest areas.//www.springerlink.com/content/n877766450lk8p66/fulltext.pdf Ecological and Geographical Characteristics of the Coastal Zone of the Black Sea]. GeoJournal 27.2, 169–178.</ref> The continental interiors are the driest areas.
History
Early periods
dienekes.angeltowns.net/articles/ieorigins/|title=Indo-European Origins in Southeast Europe|author=Dienekes Pontikos|work=Anthropological Research Page|date=2004-10-02|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> and Scythians.<ref name = Belinskij>Andrej Belinskij and Heinrich Härke, "The 'Princess' of Ipatovo," in Archeology, Volume 52 Number 2, March/April 1999.</ref> Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in the course of the 20th century in such places as Ipatovo,<ref name = Belinskij/> Sintashta,<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Arkaim,<ref>Dr. Ludmila Koryakova, "Sintashta-Arkaim Culture" The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Retrieved 20 July 2007.</ref> and Pazyryk.<ref>1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden" Transcript.</ref> In the latter part of the eighth century BC, Greek merchants brought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria.<ref>Esther Jacobson, The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World, Brill, 1995, p. 38. ISBN 9004098569.</ref> Between the third and sixth centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom, a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greek colonies,<ref>Gocha R. Tsetskhladze (ed), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology, F. Steiner, 1998, p. 48. ISBN 3515073027.</ref> was overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions,<ref>Peter Turchin, Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall, Princeton University Press, 2003, pp. 185–186. ISBN 0691116695.</ref> led by warlike tribes, such as the Huns and Turkic Avars. A Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas through to the 8th century.<ref name = Christian>David Christian, A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Blackwell Publishing, 1998, pp. 286–288. ISBN 0631208143.</ref>//dienekes.angeltowns.net/articles/ieorigins/|title=Indo-European Origins in Southeast Europe|author=Dienekes Pontikos|work=Anthropological Research Page|date=2004-10-02|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> and Scythians.<ref name = Belinskij>Andrej Belinskij and Heinrich Härke, "The 'Princess' of Ipatovo," in Archeology, Volume 52 Number 2, March/April 1999.</ref> Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in the course of the 20th century in such places as Ipatovo,<ref name = Belinskij/> Sintashta,<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Arkaim,<ref>Dr. Ludmila Koryakova, "Sintashta-Arkaim Culture" The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Retrieved 20 July 2007.</ref> and Pazyryk.<ref>1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden" Transcript.</ref> In the latter part of the eighth century BC, Greek merchants brought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria.<ref>Esther Jacobson, The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World, Brill, 1995, p. 38. ISBN 9004098569.</ref> Between the third and sixth centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom, a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greek colonies,<ref>Gocha R. Tsetskhladze (ed), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology, F. Steiner, 1998, p. 48. ISBN 3515073027.</ref> was overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions,<ref>Peter Turchin, Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall, Princeton University Press, 2003, pp. 185–186. ISBN 0691116695.</ref> led by warlike tribes, such as the Huns and Turkic Avars. A Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas through to the 8th century.<ref name = Christian>David Christian, A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Blackwell Publishing, 1998, pp. 286–288. ISBN 0631208143.</ref>
The ancestors of modern Russians are the Slavic tribes, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pripet Marshes.<ref>For a discussion of the origins of Slavs, see Paul M. Barford, The Early Slavs, Cornell University Press, 2001, pp. 15-16. ISBN 0801439779.</ref> Moving into the lands vacated by the migrating Germanic tribes, the Early East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev toward present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk toward Novgorod and Rostov.<ref name = Christian2>David Christian, op cit., pp. 6–7.</ref> From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia<ref name = Christian2/> and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native Finno-Ugric tribes, including the Merya,<ref>Henry K Paszkiewicz, The Making of the Russian Nation, Darton, Longman & Todd, 1963, p. 262.</ref> the Muromians,<ref>Rosamond McKitterick, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 497. ISBN 0521364477.</ref> and the Meshchera.<ref name = Mongait>Aleksandr Lʹvovich Mongaĭt, Archeology in the U.S.S.R., Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1959, p. 335.</ref>
Kievan Rus'
www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057004/Oleg Viking (Varangian) Oleg] and Viking (Varangian) Rurik at Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref> combined piracy and trade in their roamings over much of Northern Europe. In the mid-9th century, they ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.<ref>Dimitri Obolensky, Byzantium and the Slavs, St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1994, p. 42. ISBN 088141008X.</ref> According to the earliest Russian chronicle, a Varangian named Rurik was elected ruler (konung or knyaz) of Novgorod around the year 860;<ref name = Curtis/> his successors moved south and extended their authority to Kiev,<ref>James Westfall Thompson, and Edgar Nathaniel Johnson, An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300-1500, W. W. Norton & Co., 1937, p. 268.</ref> which had been previously dominated by the Khazars.<ref>David Christian, Op cit. p. 343.</ref>//www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057004/Oleg Viking (Varangian) Oleg] and Viking (Varangian) Rurik at Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref> combined piracy and trade in their roamings over much of Northern Europe. In the mid-9th century, they ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.<ref>Dimitri Obolensky, Byzantium and the Slavs, St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1994, p. 42. ISBN 088141008X.</ref> According to the earliest Russian chronicle, a Varangian named Rurik was elected ruler (konung or knyaz) of Novgorod around the year 860;<ref name = Curtis/> his successors moved south and extended their authority to Kiev,<ref>James Westfall Thompson, and Edgar Nathaniel Johnson, An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300-1500, W. W. Norton & Co., 1937, p. 268.</ref> which had been previously dominated by the Khazars.<ref>David Christian, Op cit. p. 343.</ref>
www.state.gov/t/pm/64851.htm Ukraine: Security Assistance] US Department of State</ref> In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Kipchaks and the Pechenegs, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as Zalesye.<ref name="Klyuch1">Vasily Klyuchevsky. The course of the Russian history, v.1, ISBN 5-244-00072-1 [5]</ref>. Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongols. The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over three centuries. Mongol rule retarded the country's economic and social development.<ref>Рыбаков Б. А., «Ремесло Древней Руси», 1948, с.525–533,780–781</ref> However, the Novgorod Republic together with Pskov retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the Mongol yoke and was largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the Germanic crusaders who attempted to colonize the region. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state because of in-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled it collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, Novgorod in the north, and Halych-Volhynia in the south-west. Conquest by the Golden Horde in the 13th century was the final blow and resulted in the destruction of Kiev.<ref name ="Hamm">In 1240. See Michael Franklin Hamm, Kiev: A Portrait, 1800-1917, Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 0691025851</ref> Halych-Volhynia was eventually absorbed into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,<ref name = Curtis/> while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and the independent Novgorod Republic, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation.<ref name = Curtis>Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. ISBN 0160612128.</ref>//www.state.gov/t/pm/64851.htm Ukraine: Security Assistance] US Department of State</ref> In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Kipchaks and the Pechenegs, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as Zalesye.<ref name="Klyuch1">Vasily Klyuchevsky. The course of the Russian history, v.1, ISBN 5-244-00072-1 [6]</ref>. Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongols. The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over three centuries. Mongol rule retarded the country's economic and social development.<ref>Рыбаков Б. А., «Ремесло Древней Руси», 1948, с.525–533,780–781</ref> However, the Novgorod Republic together with Pskov retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the Mongol yoke and was largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the Germanic crusaders who attempted to colonize the region. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state because of in-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled it collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, Novgorod in the north, and Halych-Volhynia in the south-west. Conquest by the Golden Horde in the 13th century was the final blow and resulted in the destruction of Kiev.<ref name ="Hamm">In 1240. See Michael Franklin Hamm, Kiev: A Portrait, 1800-1917, Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 0691025851</ref> Halych-Volhynia was eventually absorbed into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,<ref name = Curtis/> while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and the independent Novgorod Republic, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation.<ref name = Curtis>Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. ISBN 0160612128.</ref>
Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia
www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/states3.html Khanate of the Golden Horde]</ref>//www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/states3.html Khanate of the Golden Horde]</ref>
In 1547, Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) was officially crowned the first Tsar of Russia. During his long reign, Ivan IV annexed the Tatar khanates (Kazan, Astrakhan) along the Volga River and transformed Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state. Ivan IV promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (Zemsky Sobor) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.<ref> Sergey Solovyov. History of Russia from the Earliest Times, ISBN 5-17-002142-9, v.6, pp.562–604; Skrynnikov R., "Ivan Grosny", p.58, M., AST, 2001</ref> But Ivan IV's rule was also marked by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of Poland, Lithuania, Sweden for the access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.<ref>Sergey Solovyov. History of Russia from the Earliest Times, v.6, pp.751–908</ref> The military losses, epidemics, and poor harvests<ref>Borisenkov E, Pasetski V. The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena. ISBN 5-244-00212-0, p.190</ref> weakened the state, and the Crimean Tatars were able to burn down Moscow.<ref>Sergey Solovyov. History of Russia from the Earliest Times, v.6, pp.751–809</ref> The death of Ivan's sons, combined with the famine (1601–1603),<ref>Nighttime temperatures in all summer months, often below freezing, wrecked crops. Borisenkov E, Pasetski V. The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena. ISBN 5-244-00212-0, p.190</ref> led to the civil war and foreign intervention of the Time of Troubles in the early 1600s.<ref>Sergey Solovyov. History of Russia from the Earliest Times, v.7, pp.461–568</ref> By the middle of the seventeenth century there were Russian settlements in Eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the Pacific coast. The strait between North America and Asia was first sighted by a Russian explorer in 1648.
Imperial Russia
militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/09_01.html]</ref>), Estland, and Livland, securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.<ref>Sergey Solovyov. History of Russia from the Earliest Times, v.15, ch.1[7]</ref> It was in Ingria that Peter founded a new capital, Saint Petersburg. Peter's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia. Catherine II (Catherine the Great), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, continued the efforts at establishing Russia as one of the great powers of Europe. In alliance with Prussia and Austria, Russia stood against Napoleon's France and eliminated its rival Poland-Lithuania in a series of partitions, gaining large areas of territory in the west. As a result of its victories in the Russian-Turkish wars, by the early 19th century Russia had made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia. Napoleon's invasion failed miserably as obstinate Russian resistance combined with the bitterly cold Russian winter dealt him a disastrous defeat, from which more than 95% of his invading force perished.<ref name=uslibrary>Ruling the Empire U.S. Library of Congress</ref> However, the officers of the Napoleonic wars brought back to Russia the ideas of liberalism and even attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825, which was followed by several decades of political repression.//militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/09_01.html]</ref>), Estland, and Livland, securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.<ref>Sergey Solovyov. History of Russia from the Earliest Times, v.15, ch.1[8]</ref> It was in Ingria that Peter founded a new capital, Saint Petersburg. Peter's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia. Catherine II (Catherine the Great), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, continued the efforts at establishing Russia as one of the great powers of Europe. In alliance with Prussia and Austria, Russia stood against Napoleon's France and eliminated its rival Poland-Lithuania in a series of partitions, gaining large areas of territory in the west. As a result of its victories in the Russian-Turkish wars, by the early 19th century Russia had made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia. Napoleon's invasion failed miserably as obstinate Russian resistance combined with the bitterly cold Russian winter dealt him a disastrous defeat, from which more than 95% of his invading force perished.<ref name=uslibrary>Ruling the Empire U.S. Library of Congress</ref> However, the officers of the Napoleonic wars brought back to Russia the ideas of liberalism and even attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825, which was followed by several decades of political repression.
The prevalence of serfdom and the conservative policies of Nicolas I impeded the development of Russia in the mid-nineteenth century. Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant reforms, including the abolition of serfdom in 1861; these "Great Reforms" spurred industrialization. However, many socio-economic conflicts were aggravated during Alexander III’s reign and under his son, Nicholas II. Harsh conditions in factories created mass support for the revolutionary socialist movement. In January, 1905 striking workers peaceably demonstrated for reforms in Saint Petersburg but were fired upon by troops, killing and wounding hundreds. The event, known as "Bloody Sunday", ignited the Russian Revolution of 1905. Although the uprising was swiftly put down by the army and he retained much of his power, Nicholas II was forced to concede major reforms including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly, legalization of political parties and the creation of an elected legislative assembly, the Duma, however basic improvements in the lives of industrial workers were unfulfilled.
encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569348/Russian_Revolutions_of_1917.html Russian Revolutions of 1917] MSN Encarta</ref>//encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569348/Russian_Revolutions_of_1917.html Russian Revolutions of 1917] MSN Encarta</ref>
Soviet Russia
www.amazon.com/Russian-Civil-War-Evan-Mawdsley/dp/1841580643]</ref> At the end of the Civil War, the economy and infrastructure were devastated.//www.amazon.com/Russian-Civil-War-Evan-Mawdsley/dp/1841580643]</ref> At the end of the Civil War, the economy and infrastructure were devastated.
encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553017/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics.html#p63 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics] MSN Encarta</ref> The Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic dominated the Soviet Union for its entire 74-year history; the USSR was often referred to as "Russia" and its people as "Russians." The largest of the republics, Russia contributed over half the population of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks introduced free universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and free housing. Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws aimed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities.<ref>Tony Cliff, Class Struggle and Women’s Liberation, Bookmarks, London, 1984, pp. 138-139 (ISBN-10: 0906224128)</ref> After Lenin's death in 1924 a Georgian named Joseph Stalin, consolidated power and became a dictator.<ref name=msnencarta>Union of Soviet Socialist Republics MSN Encarta</ref>//encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553017/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics.html#p63 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics] MSN Encarta</ref> The Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic dominated the Soviet Union for its entire 74-year history; the USSR was often referred to as "Russia" and its people as "Russians." The largest of the republics, Russia contributed over half the population of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks introduced free universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and free housing. Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws aimed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities.<ref>Tony Cliff, Class Struggle and Women’s Liberation, Bookmarks, London, 1984, pp. 138-139 (ISBN-10: 0906224128)</ref> After Lenin's death in 1924 a Georgian named Joseph Stalin, consolidated power and became a dictator.<ref name=msnencarta>Union of Soviet Socialist Republics MSN Encarta</ref>
Stalin launched a command economy, forced rapid industrialization of the largely rural country and collectivization of its agriculture.<ref name="Richman">Modèle:Cite journal</ref>]]//www.gks.ru/eng/|title=Federal State Statistics Service}}</ref>]] www.unicef.org/russia/media_6762.html June 1, 2007: A great number of children in Russia remain highly vulnerable] United Nations Children's Fund, unicef.org</ref> As of the 2002 Russian census, 79.8% of the population is ethnically Russian, 3.8% Tatar, 2% Ukrainian, 1.2% Bashkir, 1.1% Chuvash, 0.9% Chechen, 0.8% Armenian, and 10.3% other or unspecified.<ref name=cia/> Though Russia's population is comparatively large, its population density is low because of its enormous size;<ref>List of countries by population density</ref> its population is densest in European Russia, near the Ural Mountains, and in the southwest Siberia.//www.unicef.org/russia/media_6762.html June 1, 2007: A great number of children in Russia remain highly vulnerable] United Nations Children's Fund, unicef.org</ref> As of the 2002 Russian census, 79.8% of the population is ethnically Russian, 3.8% Tatar, 2% Ukrainian, 1.2% Bashkir, 1.1% Chuvash, 0.9% Chechen, 0.8% Armenian, and 10.3% other or unspecified.<ref name=cia/> Though Russia's population is comparatively large, its population density is low because of its enormous size;<ref>List of countries by population density</ref> its population is densest in European Russia, near the Ural Mountains, and in the southwest Siberia.
www.urbaneconomics.ru/eng/publications.php?folder_id=19&mat_id=6 Urban Russia At The Crossroads. Russian cities in the XXI century: Development scenarios] The Institute for Urban Economics</ref> As of the 2002 Census, the two largest cities in Russia are Moscow (10,342,151 inhabitants) and Saint Petersburg (4,661,219). Eleven other cities have between one and two million inhabitants: Chelyabinsk, Kazan, Novosibirsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Omsk, Perm, Rostov-on-Don, Samara, Ufa, Volgograd, and Yekaterinburg. There are an estimated 10 million illegal immigrants from the ex-Soviet states in Russia.<ref>Russia cracking down on illegal migrants Published: January 15, 2007, International Herald Tribune</ref>//www.urbaneconomics.ru/eng/publications.php?folder_id=19&mat_id=6 Urban Russia At The Crossroads. Russian cities in the XXI century: Development scenarios] The Institute for Urban Economics</ref> As of the 2002 Census, the two largest cities in Russia are Moscow (10,342,151 inhabitants) and Saint Petersburg (4,661,219). Eleven other cities have between one and two million inhabitants: Chelyabinsk, Kazan, Novosibirsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Omsk, Perm, Rostov-on-Don, Samara, Ufa, Volgograd, and Yekaterinburg. There are an estimated 10 million illegal immigrants from the ex-Soviet states in Russia.<ref>Russia cracking down on illegal migrants Published: January 15, 2007, International Herald Tribune</ref>
Education
www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm The Russian Constitution] (Article 43 para. 1)</ref> Russia has a literacy rate of 99.4%.<ref name=cia/> Russia came first in the world in the 2006 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study conducted by Boston College.<ref>Russia tops, South Africa last, in literacy study Reuters</ref> Entry to higher education is highly competitive.<ref>Anna Smolentseva, Bridging the Gap Between Higher and Secondary Education in Russia</ref> Universities have been transitioning to a new degree structure similar to that of Britain and the USA; a four year Bachelor's degree and two year Master's degree.<ref>Education System in Russia studyrussian.com</ref> As a result of great emphasis on science and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical, scientific, and space and aviation research is generally of a high order.<ref>Russia Country Guide eubusiness.com</ref>//www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm The Russian Constitution] (Article 43 para. 1)</ref> Russia has a literacy rate of 99.4%.<ref name=cia/> Russia came first in the world in the 2006 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study conducted by Boston College.<ref>Russia tops, South Africa last, in literacy study Reuters</ref> Entry to higher education is highly competitive.<ref>Anna Smolentseva, Bridging the Gap Between Higher and Secondary Education in Russia</ref> Universities have been transitioning to a new degree structure similar to that of Britain and the USA; a four year Bachelor's degree and two year Master's degree.<ref>Education System in Russia studyrussian.com</ref> As a result of great emphasis on science and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical, scientific, and space and aviation research is generally of a high order.<ref>Russia Country Guide eubusiness.com</ref>
www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm The Russian Constitution] Article 43 para. 3</ref> The Government allocates funding to pay the tuition fees within an established quota, or number of students for each state institution.<ref name=education2/> This is considered crucial because it provides access to higher education to all skilled students, as opposed to only those who can afford it. In addition, students are provided with a small stipend and free housing. However, the institutions have to be funded entirely from the federal and regional budgets; institutions have found themselves unable to provide adequate teachers' salaries, students' stipends, and to maintain their facilities.<ref name=education2>[9] State University Higher School of Economics</ref> To address the issue, many state institutions started to open commercial positions, which have been growing steadily since.<ref name=education2/> Many private higher education institutions have emerged to address the need for a skilled work-force for high-tech and emerging industries and economic sectors.<ref name=education2/>//www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm The Russian Constitution] Article 43 para. 3</ref> The Government allocates funding to pay the tuition fees within an established quota, or number of students for each state institution.<ref name=education2/> This is considered crucial because it provides access to higher education to all skilled students, as opposed to only those who can afford it. In addition, students are provided with a small stipend and free housing. However, the institutions have to be funded entirely from the federal and regional budgets; institutions have found themselves unable to provide adequate teachers' salaries, students' stipends, and to maintain their facilities.<ref name=education2>[10] State University Higher School of Economics</ref> To address the issue, many state institutions started to open commercial positions, which have been growing steadily since.<ref name=education2/> Many private higher education institutions have emerged to address the need for a skilled work-force for high-tech and emerging industries and economic sectors.<ref name=education2/>
Health
Russia's constitution guarantees free, universal health care for all citizens.<ref>Russian Constitution, Article 41</ref> While Russia has more physicians, hospitals, and health care workers than almost any other country in the world,<ref>Field MG. The health and demographic crisis in post-Soviet Russia: a two-phase development. In: Field MG, Twigg JL, editors. Russia’s Torn Safety Nets. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000:11–42.</ref><ref>Highlights on Health in the Russian Federation. New York: World findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3659/is_200204/ai_n9037764</ref> As of 2006, the average life expectancy in Russia is 59.12 years for males and 73.03 years for females.<ref name=cia/> The biggest factor contributing to this relatively low life expectancy for males is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes (e.g., alcohol poisoning, stress, smoking, traffic accidents, violent crimes). As a result, there are 0.859 males to every female.<ref name=cia/>//findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3659/is_200204/ai_n9037764</ref> As of 2006, the average life expectancy in Russia is 59.12 years for males and 73.03 years for females.<ref name=cia/> The biggest factor contributing to this relatively low life expectancy for males is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes (e.g., alcohol poisoning, stress, smoking, traffic accidents, violent crimes). As a result, there are 0.859 males to every female.<ref name=cia/>
www.gks.ru/free_doc/2006/rus06e/05-01.htm Resident population]. Federal State Statistics Service Service</ref> The primary causes of Russia's population decrease are a high death rate and low birth rate. While Russia's birth-rate is comparable to that of other European countries (Russia's birth rate is 10.92 per 1000 people compared to the European Union average of 10.00 per 1000)<ref>Rank Order - Birth rate Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook</ref> its population declines at much greater rate due to a substantially higher death rate (Russia's death rate is 16.04 per 1000 people compared to the European Union average of 10.00 per 1000).<ref>Rank Order - Death rate The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency</ref> Heart diseases account for 56.7% of total deaths, with about 30% involving people still of working age.<ref name=heart/> About 16 million Russians suffer from cardiovascular diseases, placing Russia second in the world, after Ukraine, in this respect.<ref name=heart/> Mortality among Russian men rose by 60% since 1991, four to five times higher than in Europe.<ref name=heart>Heart disease kills 1.3 million annually in Russia - chief cardiologist Russian News & Information Agency</ref> Death rates from homicide, suicide and cancer are also especially high.<ref name=cbs>Corruption Pervades Russia's Health System CBSnews.com</ref> According to a 2007 survey by Romir Monitoring, 52% of men and 15% of women smoke,<ref name=smokingria>Third of Russians smoke, but half welcome public smoking ban Russian News & Information Agency</ref> and more than 260,000 lives are lost each year as a result of tobacco use.<ref name=smokingria/> HIV/AIDS, virtually non-existent in the Soviet Union, rapidly spread following the collapse, mainly through the explosive growth of intravenous drug use.<ref>HIV/AIDS in the Russian Federation The World Bank</ref> According to official statistics, there are currently more than 364,000 people in Russia registered with HIV but independent experts place the number significantly higher.<ref>Russian regional HIV vaccine center seeks $40-50 mln from budget Russian News & Information Agency</ref> In increasing efforts to combat the disease, the government increased spending on HIV control measures 20-fold in 2006. Since the Soviet collapse there has also been a dramatic rise in both cases of and deaths from tuberculosis, with the disease being particuarly widespread amongst prison inmates.<ref>119,000 TB cases in Russia - health official Russian News & Information Agency</ref>//www.gks.ru/free_doc/2006/rus06e/05-01.htm Resident population]. Federal State Statistics Service Service</ref> The primary causes of Russia's population decrease are a high death rate and low birth rate. While Russia's birth-rate is comparable to that of other European countries (Russia's birth rate is 10.92 per 1000 people compared to the European Union average of 10.00 per 1000)<ref>Rank Order - Birth rate Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook</ref> its population declines at much greater rate due to a substantially higher death rate (Russia's death rate is 16.04 per 1000 people compared to the European Union average of 10.00 per 1000).<ref>Rank Order - Death rate The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency</ref> Heart diseases account for 56.7% of total deaths, with about 30% involving people still of working age.<ref name=heart/> About 16 million Russians suffer from cardiovascular diseases, placing Russia second in the world, after Ukraine, in this respect.<ref name=heart/> Mortality among Russian men rose by 60% since 1991, four to five times higher than in Europe.<ref name=heart>Heart disease kills 1.3 million annually in Russia - chief cardiologist Russian News & Information Agency</ref> Death rates from homicide, suicide and cancer are also especially high.<ref name=cbs>Corruption Pervades Russia's Health System CBSnews.com</ref> According to a 2007 survey by Romir Monitoring, 52% of men and 15% of women smoke,<ref name=smokingria>Third of Russians smoke, but half welcome public smoking ban Russian News & Information Agency</ref> and more than 260,000 lives are lost each year as a result of tobacco use.<ref name=smokingria/> HIV/AIDS, virtually non-existent in the Soviet Union, rapidly spread following the collapse, mainly through the explosive growth of intravenous drug use.<ref>HIV/AIDS in the Russian Federation The World Bank</ref> According to official statistics, there are currently more than 364,000 people in Russia registered with HIV but independent experts place the number significantly higher.<ref>Russian regional HIV vaccine center seeks $40-50 mln from budget Russian News & Information Agency</ref> In increasing efforts to combat the disease, the government increased spending on HIV control measures 20-fold in 2006. Since the Soviet collapse there has also been a dramatic rise in both cases of and deaths from tuberculosis, with the disease being particuarly widespread amongst prison inmates.<ref>119,000 TB cases in Russia - health official Russian News & Information Agency</ref>
lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Russia.pdf Country Profile: Russia, October 2006]</ref> In the first six months of 2007, Russia has seen the highest birth rate since the collapse of the USSR.<ref>Birth rate in Russia highest in past 15 years—Medvedev (Part 2) Interfax Information Services</ref> The First Deputy Prime Minister indicated that the number of childbirths increased 6.5 percent in the first half of 2007, while the number of deaths fell the same 6.5 percent.<ref name=ros>Birth rate hits 15-year high in Russia RosBusinessConsulting</ref> The First Deputy PM also said about 20 billion rubles (about US$1 billion) will be invested in new prenatal centres in Russia in 2008–2009. Russia is the second country in the world by the number of immigrants from abroad, mostly from other CIS countries. They are mainly Russians or Russian speakers,<ref>Banjanovic, Adisa, Russia's new immigration policy will boost the population euromonitor.com</ref> and immigration is increasingly seen as necessary to sustain the country's population.<ref>United Nations Expert Group Meeting On International Migration and Development Population Division; Department of Economic and Social Affairs; United Nations Secretariat; New York, 6–8 July 2005</ref>//lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Russia.pdf Country Profile: Russia, October 2006]</ref> In the first six months of 2007, Russia has seen the highest birth rate since the collapse of the USSR.<ref>Birth rate in Russia highest in past 15 years—Medvedev (Part 2) Interfax Information Services</ref> The First Deputy Prime Minister indicated that the number of childbirths increased 6.5 percent in the first half of 2007, while the number of deaths fell the same 6.5 percent.<ref name=ros>Birth rate hits 15-year high in Russia RosBusinessConsulting</ref> The First Deputy PM also said about 20 billion rubles (about US$1 billion) will be invested in new prenatal centres in Russia in 2008–2009. Russia is the second country in the world by the number of immigrants from abroad, mostly from other CIS countries. They are mainly Russians or Russian speakers,<ref>Banjanovic, Adisa, Russia's new immigration policy will boost the population euromonitor.com</ref> and immigration is increasingly seen as necessary to sustain the country's population.<ref>United Nations Expert Group Meeting On International Migration and Development Population Division; Department of Economic and Social Affairs; United Nations Secretariat; New York, 6–8 July 2005</ref>
Language
www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm The Constitution of the Russian Federation] (Article 68, para. 2)</ref> Russian is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages.<ref name=toronto>Russian University of Toronto</ref> Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of three (or, according to some authorities, four) living members of the East Slavic languages; the others being Belarusian and Ukrainian (and possibly Rusyn, often considered a dialect of Ukrainian). Written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century onwards. <ref>Russian language MSN Encarta</ref>//www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm The Constitution of the Russian Federation] (Article 68, para. 2)</ref> Russian is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages.<ref name=toronto>Russian University of Toronto</ref> Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of three (or, according to some authorities, four) living members of the East Slavic languages; the others being Belarusian and Ukrainian (and possibly Rusyn, often considered a dialect of Ukrainian). Written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century onwards. <ref>Russian language MSN Encarta</ref>
www.rlcentre.com/russian-language-course.shtml] Moscow State University, Russian Language Centre—Official Website</ref> Russian also is a necessary accessory of world communications systems (broadcasts, air- and space communication, etc).<ref name=lomonosov/> Because of the status of the Soviet Union as a superpower, Russian had great political importance in the 20th century.<ref name=toronto/> Hence, the language is still one of the official languages of the United Nations.//www.rlcentre.com/russian-language-course.shtml] Moscow State University, Russian Language Centre—Official Website</ref> Russian also is a necessary accessory of world communications systems (broadcasts, air- and space communication, etc).<ref name=lomonosov/> Because of the status of the Soviet Union as a superpower, Russian had great political importance in the 20th century.<ref name=toronto/> Hence, the language is still one of the official languages of the United Nations.
Religion
books.google.com/books?id=EPP3ti4hysUC&pg=PA47&lpg=PA47&dq=respecting+christianity+islam+buddhism+judaism+and+other&source=web&ots=pppIldMuS1&sig=KikE3NJkzMEdWt4rU9EoeN03-6o]</ref> Estimates of believers widely fluctuate between sources, and some reports put the number of non-believers in Russia as high as 24–48% of the population.<ref>Zuckerman, Phil. "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns", chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (2005).</ref> Russian Orthodoxy is the dominant religion in Russia.<ref name=relig>Religion In Russia Embassy of the Russian Federation</ref> 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while there is a number of smaller Orthodox Churches.<ref>Сведения о религиозных организациях, зарегистрированных в Российской ФедерацииПо данным Федеральной регистрационной службы, декабрь 2006 Modèle:Ru icon </ref> However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis.<ref name=encarta/> Nonetheless, the church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture.<ref name=encarta/> Smaller Christian denominations such as Roman Catholics, Armenian Gregorian and other Protestants exist.//books.google.com/books?id=EPP3ti4hysUC&pg=PA47&lpg=PA47&dq=respecting+christianity+islam+buddhism+judaism+and+other&source=web&ots=pppIldMuS1&sig=KikE3NJkzMEdWt4rU9EoeN03-6o]</ref> Estimates of believers widely fluctuate between sources, and some reports put the number of non-believers in Russia as high as 24–48% of the population.<ref>Zuckerman, Phil. "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns", chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (2005).</ref> Russian Orthodoxy is the dominant religion in Russia.<ref name=relig>Religion In Russia Embassy of the Russian Federation</ref> 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while there is a number of smaller Orthodox Churches.<ref>Сведения о религиозных организациях, зарегистрированных в Российской ФедерацииПо данным Федеральной регистрационной службы, декабрь 2006 Modèle:Ru icon </ref> However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis.<ref name=encarta/> Nonetheless, the church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture.<ref name=encarta/> Smaller Christian denominations such as Roman Catholics, Armenian Gregorian and other Protestants exist.
encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_6/Russia.html>.</ref> According to a poll by the Russian Public Opinion Research Center, 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondents considered themselves Muslim and less than 1% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant or Jewish.<ref name=religionsurvey/> Another 12% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they are non-believers.<ref name=religionsurvey>Modèle:Ru iconОпубликована подробная сравнительная статистика религиозности в России и Польшесайт Religare.ru 06 июня 2007</ref>//encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_6/Russia.html>.</ref> According to a poll by the Russian Public Opinion Research Center, 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondents considered themselves Muslim and less than 1% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant or Jewish.<ref name=religionsurvey/> Another 12% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they are non-believers.<ref name=religionsurvey>Modèle:Ru iconОпубликована подробная сравнительная статистика религиозности в России и Польшесайт Religare.ru 06 июня 2007</ref>
www.rferl.org/features/features_Article.aspx?m=07&y=2005&id=B7D5E783-749F-4E6A-B77E-8932ECE7AD53 Fact Box: Muslims In Russia] RadioFreeEurope RadioLiberty</ref><ref name=timesmuslim>Jeremy Page, The rise of Russian Muslims worries Orthodox Church timesonline.co.uk</ref> Russia also has an estimated 3 million to 4 million Muslim migrants from the ex-Soviet states.<ref name=financialtimes>Russia's Islamic rebirth adds tension financialtimes.com</ref> Most Muslims live in the Volga-Ural region, as well as in the North Caucasus, Moscow, St. Petersburg and western Siberia.<ref>Michael Mainville, Russia has a Muslim dilemma Page A - 17 of the San Francisco Chronicle, November 19, 2006</ref> In Russia, there are more than 6,000 mosques (in 1991 it was about 150).<ref name=financialtimes/> Buddhism is traditional for three regions of the Russian Federation: Buryatia, Tuva and Kalmykia.<ref>Steve Nettleton, Prayers for Ivolginsky cnn.com</ref> Some residents of the Siberian and Far Eastern regions, Yakutia, Chukotka, etc., practice pantheistic and pagan rites, along with the major religions. Induction into religion takes place primarily along ethnic lines. Slavs are overwhelmingly Orthodox Christian.<ref name=religion2> "Russia." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Sept. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38602>.</ref> Turkic speakers are predominantly Muslim, although several Turkic groups in Russia are not.<ref name=religion2/>//www.rferl.org/features/features_Article.aspx?m=07&y=2005&id=B7D5E783-749F-4E6A-B77E-8932ECE7AD53 Fact Box: Muslims In Russia] RadioFreeEurope RadioLiberty</ref><ref name=timesmuslim>Jeremy Page, The rise of Russian Muslims worries Orthodox Church timesonline.co.uk</ref> Russia also has an estimated 3 million to 4 million Muslim migrants from the ex-Soviet states.<ref name=financialtimes>Russia's Islamic rebirth adds tension financialtimes.com</ref> Most Muslims live in the Volga-Ural region, as well as in the North Caucasus, Moscow, St. Petersburg and western Siberia.<ref>Michael Mainville, Russia has a Muslim dilemma Page A - 17 of the San Francisco Chronicle, November 19, 2006</ref> In Russia, there are more than 6,000 mosques (in 1991 it was about 150).<ref name=financialtimes/> Buddhism is traditional for three regions of the Russian Federation: Buryatia, Tuva and Kalmykia.<ref>Steve Nettleton, Prayers for Ivolginsky cnn.com</ref> Some residents of the Siberian and Far Eastern regions, Yakutia, Chukotka, etc., practice pantheistic and pagan rites, along with the major religions. Induction into religion takes place primarily along ethnic lines. Slavs are overwhelmingly Orthodox Christian.<ref name=religion2> "Russia." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Sept. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38602>.</ref> Turkic speakers are predominantly Muslim, although several Turkic groups in Russia are not.<ref name=religion2/>
Culture
www.amazon.co.uk/Russian-Literature-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0192801449]</ref> Amongst Russia's most famous poets and writers are Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoevsky and Anton Chekhov. The leading writers of the Soviet era included Boris Pasternak, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Vladimir Mayakovski, Mikhail Sholokhov, and the poets Yevgeny Yevtushenko and Andrei Voznesensky.//www.amazon.co.uk/Russian-Literature-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0192801449]</ref> Amongst Russia's most famous poets and writers are Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoevsky and Anton Chekhov. The leading writers of the Soviet era included Boris Pasternak, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Vladimir Mayakovski, Mikhail Sholokhov, and the poets Yevgeny Yevtushenko and Andrei Voznesensky.
Russia's large number of ethnic groups have distinctive traditions of folk music. Music in 19th century Russia was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka and his followers, who embraced Russian national identity and added religious and folk elements to their compositions, and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein, which was musically conservative. The later Romantic tradition of Tchaikovsky was brought into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff, one of the last great champions of the Romantic style of European classical music.
World-renowned composers of the 20th century included Scriabin, Stravinsky, Rachmaninoff, Prokofiev, and Shostakovich. During most of the Soviet Era, music was highly scrutinized and kept within a conservative, accessible idiom in conformity with Soviet expectations. Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists David Oistrakh and Gidon Kremer, cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, pianists Vladimir Horowitz, Sviatoslav Richter and Emil Gilels, and vocalist Galina Vishnevskaya.
www.amazon.com/Diaghilevs-Ballets-Russes-Lynn-Garafola/dp/0195057015]</ref> Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,<ref>Alexander Pushkin's Influence on Russian Ballet by Kathryn Karrh Cashin Chapter Five: Pushkin, Soviet Ballet, and Afterward</ref> and the Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another, including Maya Plisetskaya, Rudolf Nureyev, and Mikhail Baryshnikov. The Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Kirov in St. Petersburg remain famous throughout the world.<ref>A Tale of Two Operas petersburgcity.com</ref>//www.amazon.com/Diaghilevs-Ballets-Russes-Lynn-Garafola/dp/0195057015]</ref> Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,<ref>Alexander Pushkin's Influence on Russian Ballet by Kathryn Karrh Cashin Chapter Five: Pushkin, Soviet Ballet, and Afterward</ref> and the Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another, including Maya Plisetskaya, Rudolf Nureyev, and Mikhail Baryshnikov. The Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Kirov in St. Petersburg remain famous throughout the world.<ref>A Tale of Two Operas petersburgcity.com</ref>
www.britannica.com/eb/article-38645>.</ref> Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would become some of the world's most innovative and influential directors. Eisenstein also was a student of filmmaker and theorist Lev Kuleshov, who formulated the groundbreaking editing process called montage at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography in Moscow. Dziga Vertov, whose kino-glaz (“film-eye”) theory—that the camera, like the human eye, is best used to explore real life—had a huge impact on the development of documentary film making and cinema realism. In 1932, Stalin made Socialist Realism the state policy; this stifled creativity but many Soviet films in this style were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying and Ballad of a Soldier.<ref name=film/> The 1980s and 1990s were a period of crisis in Russian cinema. Although Russian filmmakers became free to express themselves, state subsidies were drastically reduced, resulting in fewer films produced. The early years of the 21st century have brought increased viewership and subsequent prosperity to the industry on the back of the economy's rapid development, and production levels are already higher than in Britain and Germany.<ref name=kino>Zygmunt Dzieciolowski, Kinoeye: Russia's reviving film industry</ref> Russia's total box-office revenue in 2006 was $412 million<ref>Russian Entertainment & Media Industry worth $27.9 bn by 2011 Price Waterhouse Coopers</ref> (in 1996 revenues stood at $6 million).<ref name=kino/> Russian cinema continues to receive international recognition. Russian Ark (2002) was the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take.//www.britannica.com/eb/article-38645>.</ref> Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would become some of the world's most innovative and influential directors. Eisenstein also was a student of filmmaker and theorist Lev Kuleshov, who formulated the groundbreaking editing process called montage at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography in Moscow. Dziga Vertov, whose kino-glaz (“film-eye”) theory—that the camera, like the human eye, is best used to explore real life—had a huge impact on the development of documentary film making and cinema realism. In 1932, Stalin made Socialist Realism the state policy; this stifled creativity but many Soviet films in this style were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying and Ballad of a Soldier.<ref name=film/> The 1980s and 1990s were a period of crisis in Russian cinema. Although Russian filmmakers became free to express themselves, state subsidies were drastically reduced, resulting in fewer films produced. The early years of the 21st century have brought increased viewership and subsequent prosperity to the industry on the back of the economy's rapid development, and production levels are already higher than in Britain and Germany.<ref name=kino>Zygmunt Dzieciolowski, Kinoeye: Russia's reviving film industry</ref> Russia's total box-office revenue in 2006 was $412 million<ref>Russian Entertainment & Media Industry worth $27.9 bn by 2011 Price Waterhouse Coopers</ref> (in 1996 revenues stood at $6 million).<ref name=kino/> Russian cinema continues to receive international recognition. Russian Ark (2002) was the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take.
Sports
www.infoplease.com/ipsa/A0114335.html Summer Olympics Through The Years]. Infoplease.com</ref> with these performances, the USSR was the dominant Olympic power of its era.<ref>The main game in a dragon's lair Sydney Morning Herald</ref> Since the 1952 Olympic Games, Soviet and later Russian athletes have always been in the top three for the number of gold medals collected at the Summer Olympics. The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow while the 2014 Winter Olympics will be hosted by Sochi.//www.infoplease.com/ipsa/A0114335.html Summer Olympics Through The Years]. Infoplease.com</ref> with these performances, the USSR was the dominant Olympic power of its era.<ref>The main game in a dragon's lair Sydney Morning Herald</ref> Since the 1952 Olympic Games, Soviet and later Russian athletes have always been in the top three for the number of gold medals collected at the Summer Olympics. The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow while the 2014 Winter Olympics will be hosted by Sochi.
www.britannica.com/eb/article-38650>.</ref> Even since the collapse of the Soviet empire, Russian athletes have continued to dominate international competition in these areas. As in most of the world, football enjoys wide popularity in Russia. Although ice hockey was only introduced during the Soviet era, the national team soon dominated the sport internationally, winning gold at almost all the Olympics and World Championships they contested.<ref name=sport/>//www.britannica.com/eb/article-38650>.</ref> Even since the collapse of the Soviet empire, Russian athletes have continued to dominate international competition in these areas. As in most of the world, football enjoys wide popularity in Russia. Although ice hockey was only introduced during the Soviet era, the national team soon dominated the sport internationally, winning gold at almost all the Olympics and World Championships they contested.<ref name=sport/>
www.infoplease.com/ipsa/A0115110.html Winter Olympics Through The Years] infoplease.com</ref> Since the end of the Soviet era, tennis has grown in popularity and Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players. Chess is a widely popular pastime; from 1948, Soviet and Russian chess grandmasters have held the world championship almost continuously.//www.infoplease.com/ipsa/A0115110.html Winter Olympics Through The Years] infoplease.com</ref> Since the end of the Soviet era, tennis has grown in popularity and Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players. Chess is a widely popular pastime; from 1948, Soviet and Russian chess grandmasters have held the world championship almost continuously.
See also
References
External links
Modèle:Sisterlinks Modèle:Wikiatlas www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.worldmapsinfo.com/ World Maps]—Maps of Russia www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.russiaprofile.org/ Russia Profile]—In-depth coverage of international, cultural, business and political events in Russia www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.russiamap.org/ RussiaMap.org]—Maps of Russia
- Government resources
www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//en.rian.ru/ Russian News Agency Ria Novosti] www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.duma.ru/ Duma]—Official site of the parliamentary lower house Modèle:Ru icon www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.council.gov.ru/eng/index.html Federative Council]—Official site of the parliamentary upper house www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.kremlin.ru/eng/ Kremlin]—Official presidential site www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.gov.ru/ Gov.ru]—Official governmental portal Modèle:Ru icon www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.russia-today.ru/ Russian Federation Today]—Official issue of the Federal Assembly Modèle:Ru icon www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.mid.ru/ Ministry of Foreign affairs] www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.customs.ru/en/ Russian Federal Customs Service] www.interfax.com/ Interfax.com]—News agency based in Moscow//www.cbr.ru/eng/ Central Bank of Russia]
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