Sweden
Un article de Vev.
- "Sverige" redirects here. For other uses, see Sweden (disambiguation) and Sverige (disambiguation).
Modèle:Infobox Country Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Modèle:Audio), is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It has been a member of the European Union since 1 January 1995. Its capital city is Stockholm.
At 449,964 km² (173,720 square miles), Sweden is the third largest country by area in Western Europe and fifth in all of Europe. Sweden has a low population density except in its metropolitan areas; 84% of the population lives in urban areas, which comprise only 1.3% of the country's total land area.<ref>Statistics Sweden. Yearbook of Housing and Building Statistics 2007. Statistics Sweden, Energy, Rents and Real Estate Statistics Unit, 2007. ISBN 9789161813612. Available online in pdf format.</ref> The inhabitants of Sweden enjoy a high standard of living, and the country is generally perceived as modern and liberal,<ref>CIA World Factbook: Economy - Sweden</ref> with an organizational and corporate culture that is non-hierarchical and collectivist compared to its Anglo-Saxon counterparts.<ref>De Geer, Hans, Tommy Borglund and Magnus Frostenson (2003). An Anglo-Swedish affair – Changing relations in an international acquisition. The 17th Nordic Conference on Business Studies in Reykjavík, 14-16 August 2003. Working paper within the project "Scandinavian Heritage", p. 9. Available online in pdf-format through the University of Iceland.</ref> Nature conservation, environmental protection and energy efficiency are generally prioritized in policy making and embraced by the general public in Sweden.<ref>Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Naturvårdsverket) (2006). Sweden's Environmental Objectives – Buying into a better future. A progress report from the Swedish Environmental Objectives Council. De Facto, 2006, p. 9: "Swedes in general feel that environmental issues and action to reduce impacts on the environment are important". See also Legislation & guidelines and Greenhouse gas emissions: "Swedish greenhouse gas emissions per head of population are among the lowest in the member states of the OECD."</ref><ref>Kristrom, Bengt and Soren Wibe (1997). Environmental Policy in Sweden. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences – Department of Forest Economics, Working paper 246, 27 August 1997.</ref>
Sweden has a long been a major exporter of iron, copper and timber. Improved transportation and communication has allowed for the large scale utilization of remote natural assets, most notably timber and iron ore. In the 1890s, universal schooling and industrialization enabled the country to develop a successful manufacturing industry and by the twentieth century, Sweden emerged as a welfare state, consistently achieving high positions among the top-ranking countries in the UN Human Development Index (HDI). Sweden has a rich supply of water power, but lacks significant oil and coal deposits.
Modern Sweden emerged out of the Kalmar Union formed in 1397, and by the unification of the country by King Gustav Vasa in the 16th century. In the 17th century the country expanded its territories to form the Swedish empire. Most of the conquered territories, including Finland and the territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula, were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when it entered into a personal union with Norway, a union which lasted until 1905. Since 1814, Sweden has been at peace, adopting a non-aligned foreign policy in peacetime and neutrality in wartime.<ref>U.S. State Department Background Notes: Sweden </ref>
Sommaire |
History
Prehistory
The early record of human activity in Scandinavia is sparse and the interpretations of the records from the Nordic Stone Age (10,000 BC – 1700 BC) are often conflicting.<ref>Nordstrom, Byron J. (2000). Scandinavia since 1500, University of Minnesota Press, p. 1: "The record of human activity in Scandinavia spans about eleven thousand years. By far the greatest share of this, about ten thousand years (from the earliest evidence of human presence to the Viking Age), belongs to prehistory, to the past at its most obscure. Evidence for these times is fragmentary, scattered, and often subject to conflicting interpretations."</ref> The oldest archaeological evidence of human habitation in Scandinavia has been found in what is now Denmark and consists of flint tools from 9,500 to 9,000 BC. Some scholars argue that the population slowly spread into what is present-day Sweden during the ensuing millennia.<ref name="NB3-14"/>
In 4200 BC, fired pottery, systematic farming and permanent settlements developed in southern Scandinavia and spread northward. Hundreds of Mediterranean-style megalithic graves dated 3300–2000 BC have been found in Denmark and southern Sweden. The early hunter-gatherers and farmers were followed between 2500 and 2000 BC by a new ethnolinguistic group, the so-called boat axe, battle axe, or single-grave people, named for their stone weapons and graves. They may have been Indo-European-speaking nomads who spread across much of northern Europe and may have also established cultural dominance over the earlier peoples of southern and central Scandinavia.<ref name="NB3-14"> Nordstrom, Byron (2000). Scandinavia Since 1500, University of Minnesota Press, pp. 3–14.</ref> This period was followed by the Nordic Bronze Age (1700–500 BC), one of the richest periods in the Nordic region, especially in southern Scandinavia. The conditions were geologically and topographically very similar to those in the modern-day Scandinavian landscape, but the climate was milder. An elite is believed to have emerged during this period, a chieftain-trader class with possible roots in the social structure of the battle axe people.<ref name="NB3-14" /> Archaeological finds of this era include the petroglyphs of southern Sweden and Norway, grave goods from several large burial mounds, and offering finds from what are believed to have been sacrificial sites.<ref name="NB3-14"/> Because of the wide access to water, Sweden's early inhabitants came in waves from many surrounding areas, with no recognized borders yet existing in Scandinavia. Societies in Sweden remained on the preliterate tribal and chiefdom levels until the emergence of writing on rune stones in the Viking Age. It is not known when and how the kingdom of Sweden was born, but the list of Swedish monarchs is drawn from the first kings who ruled Svealand (Sweden) and Götaland (Gothia) as one. Sweden and Gothia were two separate nations long before that. It is unknown how long they have existed.
A tribe populating a region of what is today Sweden was first mentioned in 98 AD by the Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote about the Suiones who lived out in the sea and were powerful in both arms and ships. According to Tacitus, they venerated wealth and therefore had a single ruler who exacted unlimited obedience from them and governed without restriction in power. Tacitus expressed concern that these Suiones might ally with neighboring tribes and cause trouble for the Roman Empire. Some scholars believe that Tacitus referred to the inhabitants of present-day eastern Sweden: Svealand, primarily the region around lake Mälaren. The modern name Sweden is derived through "back-formation" from Old English Sweoðeod, which meant "people of the Swedes" (Old Norse Svíþjóð, Latin Suetidi). This word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas (Old Norse Sviar, Latin Suiones) (see Etymology of Sweden). The southern parts, on the other hand, were inhabited by the Geats in the Götaland territory, and Beowulf described semi-legendary Swedish-Geatish wars in the sixth century AD. The northern part, Norrland, was probably mostly populated by Sami.
The Swedish Viking Age lasted roughly between the eighth and eleventh centuries AD. During this period, it is believed that the Swedes expanded from eastern Sweden and incorporated the Geats to the south.<ref>The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05 [1]</ref> While Vikings from what is today Norway, Denmark and the west coast and south of Sweden travelled south and west, Swedish vikings travelled east and south, going to Finland, the Baltic countries, Russia, the Mediterranean and further as far as Baghdad. Their routes passed the rivers of Russia down south to Constantinople (Byzantine Empire) (present-day Istanbul, Turkey) on which they did numerous raids. The Byzantine Emperor Theophilos noticed their great skills in war, and invited them to serve as his personal bodyguard, these were called the varangian guard.
Middle Ages
Modèle:Seealso During the early stages of the Scandinavian Viking Age, Ystad in Scania and Paviken on Gotland, in present-day Sweden, were flourishing trade centers. Remains of what is believed to have been a large market have been found in Ystad dating from 600–700 AD.<ref name="Sawyer" /> In Paviken, an important center of trade in the Baltic region during the ninth and tenth century, remains have been found of a large Viking Age harbour with shipbuilding yards and handicraft industries. Between 800 and 1000, trade brought an abundance of silver to Gotland and according to some scholars, the Gotlanders of this era hoarded more silver than the rest of the population of Scandinavia combined.<ref name="Sawyer">Sawyer, Birgit and Peter Sawyer (1993). Medieval Scandinavia: from Conversion to Reformation, Circa 800–1500. University of Minnesota Press, 1993. ISBN 0816617392, pp. 150-153.</ref>
St. Ansgar introduced Christianity around 829, but the new religion did not begin to fully replace paganism until the twelfth century and onward. During the 11th century, Christianity became the most prevalent religion, and from the year 1050 Sweden is counted as a Christian nation. The period between 1100 and 1400 was characterized by internal power struggles and competition among the Nordic kingdoms, including struggles for territory and comparative power.<ref name="NB3-14"/> Swedish kings also began to expand the Swedish-controlled territory in Finland, creating conflicts with the Rus.<ref>Bagge, Sverre (2005). "The Scandinavian Kingdoms". In The New Cambridge Medieval History. Eds. Rosamond McKitterick et al. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 052136289X, p. 724: "Swedish expansion in Finland led to conflicts with Rus', which were temporarily brought to an end by a peace treaty in 1323, dividing the Karelian peninsula and the northern areas between the two countries."</ref>
In the 14th century, Sweden was struck by the Black Death (the Plague). During this period the Swedish cities also began to acquire greater rights and were strongly influenced by German merchants of the Hanseatic League, active especially at Visby. In 1319, Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus Eriksson and in 1397 Queen Margaret I of Denmark effected the personal union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark through the Kalmar Union. However, Margaret’s successors, whose rule was also centred in Denmark, were unable to control the Swedish nobility. Real power was held for long periods by regents (notably those of the Sture family) chosen by the Swedish parliament. King Christian II of Denmark, who asserted his claim to Sweden by force of arms, ordered a massacre in 1520 of Swedish nobles at Stockholm. This came to be known as the “Stockholm blood bath” and stirred the Swedish nobility to new resistance and, on 6 June (now Sweden's national holiday) in 1523, they made Gustav Vasa their king. This is sometimes considered as the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden into the Protestant Reformation. Gustav Vasa is considered to be Sweden's "Father of the Nation".
Swedish Empire
Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend
The 17th century saw the rise of Sweden as one of the Great Powers in Europe. Sweden also had colonial possessions as a minor colonial Empire that existed from 1638—1663 and later 1785—1878.
Sweden was during Imperial times the most powerful country of northern Europe and the Baltic Sea. Sweden's Imperial status took its start with Gustav II Adolph as king, and his successful participation in the Thirty Years' War, which made Sweden the recognized leader of continental Protestantism in Europe until 1721, when the Empire collapsed.<ref name="HayesPSH">
"A Political and Social History of Modern Europe V.1./Hayes..." Hayes, Carlton J. H. (1882-1964), Title: A Political and Social History of Modern Europe V.1., 2002-12-08, Project Gutenberg, webpage: Infomot-7hsr110.
</ref> Sweden's Imperial status during this period is largely credited to Gustav I's major changes on the Swedish economy in the mid-1500s, and his introduction of Protestantism (Lutheran).<ref name="GusEB">
"Gustav I Vasa - Britannica Concise" (biography), Britannica Concise, 2007, webpage: EBConcise-Gustav-I-Vasa.
</ref>
The mid 1600s and the early 1700s were Sweden's most successful years as a great power. Sweden reached its largest territorial extent as an empire during the rule of Charles X (1622–1660) after the treaty of Roskilde in 1658, however Swedens largest territorial extent was from 1319 to 1343 with Magnus Eriksson to Rule all of the traditional lands of Sweden and Norway. However, after more than a half century of almost constant warfare the Swedish economy had deteriorated. It would become the lifetime task of Charles' son, Charles XI (1655-1697), to rebuild the economy and refit the army. His legacy to his son, the coming ruler of Sweden Charles XII, was one of the finest arsenals in the world, a large standing army and a great fleet. Sweden's largest threat at this time, Russia, had a larger army but was far behind in both equipment and training. The Swedish army crushed the Russians at the Battle of Narva in 1700, one of the first battles of the Great Northern War. This led to an overambitious campaign against Russia in 1707, however, ending in a decisive Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava in 1709. The campaign had a successful opening for Sweden, which came to occupy half of Poland and making Charles able to claim the Polish throne. But after a long march exposed by cossack raids, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great's scorched-earth techniques and the cold Russian climate, the Swedes stood weakened with a shattered confidence, and enormously outnumbered against the Russian army at Poltava. The defeat meant the beginning of the end for Sweden as Empire.
Even though Sweden had lost almost half of its army during these times of intense war, Charles XII still attempted to invade Norway 1716. Soundly defeated in the war, the Swedish head of state signed the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. Forced to cede large areas of land, Sweden also lost its place as an empire and as the dominant state on the Baltic Sea. With Sweden's lost influence, Russia began to emerge as an empire, and become one of Europe's dominant nations.
In the 18th century, Sweden did not have enough resources to maintain its territories outside Scandinavia and most of them were lost, culminating with the 1809 loss of the territory once named Österland (Eastern district) and the eastern part of Norrland to Russia: these parts became the semi-autonomous (Duchy) of Finland of Imperial Russia.
After Denmark-Norway was defeated in the Napoleonic Wars, Norway was ceded to the king of Sweden on 14 January 1814, at the Treaty of Kiel. The Norwegian attempts to keep their status as a sovereign state were rejected by the Swedish king, Charles XIII. He launched a military campaign against Norway on July 27, 1814, ending in the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a personal union with Sweden, which was not dissolved until 1905. The 1814 campaign was also the last war in which Sweden participated as a combatant.
Modern history
Modèle:Seealso The 18th and 19th centuries saw a significant population increase, which the writer Esaias Tegnér in 1833 famously attributed to "the peace, the (smallpox) vaccine, and the potatoes".<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Between 1750 and 1850, the population in Sweden doubled. According to some scholars, mass emigration to America became the only way to prevent famine and rebellion; over 1 percent of the population emigrated annually during the 1880s.<ref name="Einhorn">
Einhorn, Eric and John Logue (1989). Modern Welfare States: Politics and Policies in Social Democratic Scandinavia. Praeger Publishers, p.9: "Though Denmark, where industrialization had begun in the 1850s, was reasonably prosperous by the end of the nineteenth century, both Sweden and Norway were terribly poor. Only the safety valve of mass emigration to America prevented famine and rebellion. At the peak of emigration in the 1880s, over 1% of the total population of both countries emigrated annually."
</ref> Nevertheless, Sweden remained poor, retaining a nearly entirely agricultural economy even as Denmark and Western European countries began to industrialize.<ref>Koblik, Steven (1975).
Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence 1750-1970, University of Minnesota Press, p.8-9, "In economic and social terms the eighteenth century was more a transitional than a revolutionary period. Sweden was, in light of contemporary Western European standards, a relatively poor but stable country. [...] It has been estimated that 75-80% of the population was involved in agricultural pursuits during the late eighteenth century. One hundred years later, the corresponding figure was still 72%."
</ref><ref name=Einhorn/> Many looked towards America for a better life during this time. It is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States.<ref>Einhorn, Eric and John Logue (1989), p.8.</ref> In the early 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Gothenburg (Sweden's second largest city). Most Swedish immigrants moved to the Midwestern United States, with a large population in Minnesota. Some Swedes moved to Delaware. Some also moved to Canada and others in smaller numbers to Argentina.
Despite the slow rate of industrialization into the 19th century, many important changes were taking place in the agrarian economy due to innovations and the large population growth.<ref name="Koblik9-10">Koblik, Steven (1975). Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence 1750-1970 University of Minnesota Press, pp. 9-10.</ref> These innovations included government-sponsored programs of enclosure, aggressive exploitation of agricultural lands, and the introduction of new crops such as the potato.<ref name="Koblik9-10"/> Due also to the fact that the Swedish peasantry had never been enserfed as elsewhere in Europe,<ref>Sweden: Social and economic conditions (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 19 February 2007.</ref> the Swedish farming culture began to take on a critical role in the Swedish political process, which has continued through modern times with modern Agrarian party (now called the Centre Party).<ref>Koblik, Steven (1975). Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence 1750-1970 University of Minnesota Press, p. 11: "The agrarian revolution in Sweden is of fundamental importance for Sweden's modern development. Throughout Swedish history the countryside has taken an unusually important role in comparison with other European states."</ref> Between 1870 and 1914, Sweden began developing the industrialized economy that exists today.<ref>Koblik, Steven (1975). Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence 1750-1970 University of Minnesota Press, p. 90. "It is usually suggested that between 1870 and 1914 Sweden emerged from its primarily agrarian economic system into a modern industrial economy."</ref>
During the late nineteenth century, Sweden was influenced by Protestant temperance movements, mainly of American origin. As a result of their intense propaganda, it is often claimed that alcohol consumption was unusually high in Sweden at this time.<ref>For instance: "As regards social evils generally, however, the low, though undoubtedly improving, standard of Sweden has had one of its chief reasons in the national intemperance." Article Sweden in the online 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> However, there is no factual ground for believing that alcohol consumption was higher than in other comparable countries.
Strong grassroots movements sprung up in Sweden during the latter half of the nineteenth century (unions, temperance groups, and independent religious groups), creating a strong foundation of democratic principles. These movements precipitated Sweden's migration into a modern parliamentary democracy, achieved by the time of World War I. As the Industrial Revolution progressed during the twentieth century, people gradually began moving into cities to work in factories, and became involved in socialist unions. A socialist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of parliamentarism, and the country was democratized.
Recent history
Modèle:Seealso Sweden remained officially neutral during World War I and World War II, although its neutrality during World War II has been vigorously debated.<ref name="Koblik303-313">Koblik, pp. 303-313.</ref><ref>Nordstrom, p. 315: "Sweden's government attempted to maintain at least a semblance of neutrality while it bent to the demands of the prevailing side in the struggle. Although effective in preserving the country's sovereignty, this approach generated criticism at home from many who believed the threat to Sweden was less serious than the government claimed, problems with the warring powers, ill feelings among its neighbours, and frequent criticism in the postwar period."</ref> Sweden was under German influence for most of the war, as ties to the rest of the world were cut off through blockades.<ref name="Koblik303-313"/> The Swedish government felt that it was in no position to openly contest Germany,<ref name="NB313-319"/> and therefore collaborated with Hitler.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Swedish volunteers in Nazi SS units were among the first to invade the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Sweden also supplied steel and machined parts to Germany throughout the war. Towards the end of the war however, when the defeat of Germany seemed imminent, Sweden began to play a role in humanitarian efforts and many refugees, among them many Jews from Nazi-occupied Europe, were saved partly because of the Swedish involvement in rescue missions at the internment camps and partly because Sweden served as a haven for refugees, primarily from Norden and the Baltic states.<ref name="NB313-319"/> Nevertheless, internal and external critics have argued that Sweden could have done more to resist the Nazi war effort, even if risking occupation.<ref name="NB313-319">Nordstrom, pp. 313-319.</ref>
Following the war, Sweden took advantage of an intact industrial base, social stability and its natural resources to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe.<ref name="NB335-339">Nordstrom, pp. 335-339.</ref> By the 1960s, Sweden, like the other Nordic countries, had become an affluent consumer society and welfare state.<ref name="NB335-339"/> Sweden was part of the Marshall Plan and participated in the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD),<ref name="NB335-339"/> many of the policies aiming to improve the quality of life for the general population, in particular Sweden's working class, were successfully implemented.
Sweden joined the European Union in 1995, after the collapse of the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, Europe's non-aligned Western countries, except Ireland, had considered membership unwise, as the EU predecessor, the European Community, had been strongly associated with NATO countries. Following the end of the Cold War, however, Sweden, Austria and Finland joined, though in Sweden's case without adopting the Euro. Sweden remains non-aligned militarily, although it participates in some joint military exercises with NATO and some other countries, in addition to extensive cooperation with other European countries in the area of defence technology and defence industry. Among others, Swedish companies export weapons that are used by the American military in Iraq.<ref> The Local
. New Swedish weapon in Iraq
. Retrieved on 2007-06-23. </ref> Sweden also has a long history of participating in international military operations, including most recently, Afghanistan, where Swedish troops are under NATO command, and in EU sponsored peacekeeping operations in Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Cyprus.
Sweden, like countries around the globe, entered a period of economic decline and upheaval, following the oil embargoes of 1973-74 and 1978-79.<ref>Nordstrom, p. 344: "During the last twenty-five years of the century a host of problems plagued the economies of Norden and the West. Although many were present before, the 1973 and 1980 global oil crises acted as catalysts in bringing them to the fore."</ref> In the 1980s pillars of Swedish industry were massively restructured. Shipbuilding was discontinued, wood pulp was integrated into modernized paper production, the steel industry was concentrated and specialized, and mechanical engineering was digitalized.<ref>Krantz, Olle and Lennart Schön. 2007. Swedish Historical National Accounts, 1800-2000. Lund: Almqvist and Wiksell International.</ref>
A bursting real estate bubble caused by inadequate controls on lending combined with an international recession and a policy switch from anti-unemployment policies to anti-inflationary policies resulted in a fiscal crisis in the early 1990s.<ref> Englund, P. 1990. "Financial deregulation in Sweden." European Economic Review 34 (2-3): 385-393. Korpi TBD. Meidner, R. 1997. "The Swedish model in an era of mass unemployment." Economic and Industrial Democracy 18 (1): 87-97. Olsen, Gregg M. 1999. "Half empty or half full? The Swedish welfare state in transition." Canadian Review of Sociology & Anthropology, 36 (2): 241-268.</ref> The response of the government was to cut spending and institute a multitude of reforms to improve Sweden's competitiveness, among them reducing the welfare state and privatizing public services and goods. Much of the political establishment promoted EU membership, and the Swedish referendum passed by 52-48% in favour of joining the EU on 14 August 1994. Sweden joined the EU on 1 January 1995.
The long term effects of these changes was to greatly improve the outlook of the Swedish economy. The Social Democrats increased spending on child support and continued to pay down the public debt.<ref>Steinmo, Sven. 2001. "Bucking the Trend? The Welfare State and Global Economy: The Swedish Case Up Close." University of Colorado, December 18.</ref> By 1998 the Swedish macroeconomy recovered from the 1980s industrial restructuring and the monetarist excesses, and the country has since performed very well macroeconomically.<ref>Krantz, Olle and Lennart Schön. 2007. Swedish Historical National Accounts, 1800-2000. Lund: Almqvist and Wiksell International.</ref> At the turn of the twenty-first century, Sweden has a well-regarded, generally robust economy, and the average quality of life, after government transfers, is very high, inequality is low (the gini coefficient is 25.0<ref name=Gini>UN Human Development Report 2004, p50-53: Gini Index calculated for all countries.</ref>), and social mobility is high (compared to the affluent Anglo-American and Catholic countries).<ref>Steinmo, Sven. 2001. "Bucking the Trend? The Welfare State and Global Economy: The Swedish Case Up Close." University of Colorado, December 18.</ref> A country known for very low crime rates compared to other developed countries, Sweden has nevertheless seen two prominent politicians assassinated in recent history: Prime Minister Olof Palme in 1986, and foreign minister Anna Lindh in 2003.
Geography and climate
Situated in Northern Europe, Sweden lies west of the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and forms the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain (Skanderna), a range that separates Sweden from Norway.
Sweden is surrounded by Norway (west), Finland (northeast), the Skagerrak, Kattegat and Öresund straits (southwest) and the Baltic Sea (east). It has maritime borders with Denmark, Germany, Poland, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, and it is also linked to Denmark (southwest) by the Öresund Bridge.
At Modèle:Convert/sqkm, Sweden is the 55th largest country in the world. It is the 5th largest in Europe, and the largest in Northern Europe. The country is slightly larger than the U.S. state of California, with a population in 2006 of 9.1 million people.
The lowest elevation in Sweden is in the bay of Lake Hammarsjon, near Kristianstad at Modèle:Convert/LoffAonDbSoff below sea level. The highest point is Kebnekaise at Modèle:Convert/LoffAonDbSoff above sea level.
Sweden has three main regions. Norrland, covering about three-fifths of the country, is mountainous, densely forested, has large ore deposits and contains the majority of the country's 90,000 lakes. Svealand consists of the Central Swedish lowland with its vast lakes and archipelagos and the hilly, forested inland regions of Dalarna and Värmland. Götaland in the south comprises the stony Småland highlands and the rich plains of Skåne, Västergötland and Östergötland. About 15% of Sweden lies north of the Arctic Circle. Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, with increasing forest coverage northward. The highest population density is in the Öresund region in southern Sweden, and in the valley of lake Mälaren in central Sweden. Gotland and Öland are Sweden's largest islands; Vänern and Vättern are Sweden's largest lakes.
Sweden has a temperate climate despite its northern latitude, mainly because of the Gulf Stream. In the mountains of northern Sweden a sub-Arctic climate predominates. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of each summer, and in the winter, night is similarly unending.
Typical temperatures in the seasons (°C):<ref name=smhi-maps-temperature> SMHI - Klimatkartor - Temperatur
. Sveriges meteorologiska och hydrologiska institut
. Retrieved on 2007-10-28. </ref>
- Winter: -1° in south, -5 to -1° in middle and down to -16° in the north.
- Spring: about 10 °C in the south and middle and a bit colder in the north.
- Summer: 18° to 25° in south, 16° to 22° in middle and around 15° in the north.
- Autumn: a bit under 10° in the south and middle and often under 5° in the north.</br>
Average precipitation is between 500 and 800 mm/year.<ref name=smhi-climate> SMHI - Sveriges klimat
. Sveriges meteorologiska och hydrologiska institut
. Retrieved on 2007-10-28. </ref>
Administrative divisions
Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into twenty-one counties (län). Each county has a County Administrative Board or länsstyrelse, which is appointed by the government (the first Swedish County Administrative Board was made up by the Swedish Prime Minister Axel Oxenstierna in 1634). In each county there is also a separate County Council or landsting, which is elected directly by the people. Each county further divides into a number of municipalities or kommuner, with a total of 290 municipalities in 2004. There are also older historical divisions, primarily the twenty-five provinces and three lands, which still retain cultural significance. The Swedish government is investigating the possibilities of merging the current 21 counties into circa 9 larger regions along the lines of the current riksområden used for statistical purposes. If approved, these would come into effect around 2015.<ref>http://www.sou.gov.se/ansvar/pdf/SOU%202007_13.pdf</ref>
Demographics
As of April 2007, the total population of Sweden was estimated to be 9,131,425.<ref>Statistics Sweden.Preliminary Population Statistics, by month, 2004 - 2006. Population statistics, 1 January 2007. Retrieved 14 February 2007.</ref> The population exceeded 9,000,000 for the first time as of approximately 12 August 2004 according to the Statistics Sweden. Of the 2004 population, 1.1 million, or 12%, were foreign-born<ref name="Integrationsverket">The Swedish Integration Board (2006). Pocket Facts: Statistics on Integration. Integrationsverket, 2006. ISBN 9189609301. Available online in pdf format. Retrieved 14 February 2007.</ref> and approximately 16.7% (1.53 million) had at least one parent born abroad or were themselves born abroad.<ref>SCB. Sveriges befolkning, kommunala jämförelsetal, 31/12/2006 31 December 2006. (In Swedish). Retrieved 3 April 2007.</ref> This reflects the inter-Nordic migrations, earlier periods of labour immigration, and later decades of refugee and family immigration. Sweden has been transformed from a nation of emigration ending after World War I to a nation of immigration from World War II onwards. In 2006, immigration to Sweden reached its highest level since records began.<ref>Record immigration to Sweden in 2006</ref>
Immigration from the other Nordic countries reached a peak of more than 40,000 per year in 1969-70 when the new immigration rules introduced in 1967 had made it more difficult for immigrants from outside the Nordic region to settle in Sweden for labour market policy reasons.<ref name="Integrationsverket" /> Immigration by refugees and immigrating relatives of refugees from outside the Nordic region increased drastically during the late 1980s, with many of the immigrants arriving from Asia and Latin America, especially from Iran and Chile. During the 1990s and onwards another large immigrant group came from former Yugoslavia and the Middle East.<ref>Nordstrom, p. 353. (Lists Former Yugoslavia and Iran as top two countries in terms of immigration beside "Other Nordic Countries," based on Nordic Council of Ministers Yearbook of Nordic Statistics, 1996, 46-47)</ref>
The largest immigrant group living in Sweden as of 2005 consists of people born in Finland, followed by people born in Turkey, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Poland, Russia, Iran, Iraq and Former Yugoslavia.<ref name="Integrationsverket" /> The official list of immigrant arrivals in 2005 by country of birth, compiled by the Swedish Integration Board, shows that the biggest group of immigrants to Sweden still comes from the Nordic countries: of the 20,162 Nordic born immigrants moving to Sweden in 2005, more than half (11,066) were people born in Sweden returning to Sweden, while 3,494 were born in Denmark, 2,793 born in Finland and 2,425 in Norway. Of the other groups arriving in 2005, 16,739 were immigrants born in Asia, 5,625 were immigrants born in Africa and 2,655 were born in Latin America.<ref name="Integrationsverket"/>
Language
The primary language of Sweden is Swedish, a North Germanic language, related and very similar to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. Norwegians have little difficulty understanding Swedish, and Danes can also understand it, with slightly more difficulty than the Norwegians.<ref name="KarlsU">
"Karlstad University" (on languages taught/spoken), Karlstad University, 2006, webpage: Kau-SE-Languages.
</ref> The area around Malmö (across from Copenhagen) has the most mutual intelligibility (being a border region). The dominant language is Swedish, though this designation was never made official. However, with the recognition of five minority languages of Sweden (Finnish, Meänkieli, Sami, Romani and Yiddish) on April 1, 2000, the issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language was raised. On December 7 2005, the parliament voted, but with a count of 147 to 145 and certain voting errors, the proposal failed.<ref>Svenskan blir inte officiellt språk, Sveriges Television, 2005-12-07. Retrieved on July 23 2006. (in Swedish)</ref>
A majority of Swedes, especially those born after World War II, understand and speak English thanks to trade links, the popularity of overseas travel, a strong Anglo-American influence and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television shows and films. English became a compulsory subject for secondary school students studying natural sciences as early as 1849, and has been a compulsory subject for all Swedish students since the late 1940s.<ref> English spoken - fast ibland hellre än bra
(Swedish)
. Lund University newsletter 7/1999
.</ref> Depending on the local school authorities, English is currently a compulsory subject between first grade and ninth grade, with all students continuing in secondary school studying English for at least another year. Most students also learn one and sometimes two additional languages. These include German, French and Italian.<ref name=KarlsU/> Some Danish and Norwegian is at times also taught as part of the Swedish course for native speakers.
Politics
Political system
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy, in which King Carl XVI Gustaf is head of state, but royal power has long been limited to official and ceremonial functions.<ref>"
Sweden in Brief/A Political Society " , Sweden.se . Retrieved on 2007-02-14 . </ref> The Economist Intelligence Unit, while admitting that "There is no consensus on how to measure democracy" and that "definitions of democracy are contested" lists Sweden in first place in its index of democracy assessing 167 countries.<ref> Economist Intelligence Unit democracy index 2006 (PDF) (English) . Economist Intelligence Unit (2007)
. Retrieved on 2007-10-09. </ref> The nation's modern legislative body is the Riksdag (Swedish Parliament), with 349 members, which chooses the Prime Minister. Parliamentary elections are held every four years, on the third Sunday of September.
In its 2007 Worldwide Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked Sweden (along with Belgium and Finland) 5th out of 169 countries.
Political history
The actual age of the kingdom of Sweden is unknown,<ref name="sh">Hadenius, Stig; Nilsson, Torbjörn; Åselius, Gunnar (1996) Sveriges historia: vad varje svensk bör veta. Bonnier Alba, Borås. ISBN 91-34-51857-6 (in Swedish) (1996:13):
| Hur och när det svenska riket uppstod vet vi inte. Först under 1100-talet börjar skriftliga dokument produceras i Sverige i någon större omfattning [...] | How and when the Swedish kingdom appeared is not known. It is not until the 12th century that written document begin to be produced in Sweden in any larger extent [...] |
Earlier kings, for which no reliable historical sources exist can be read about in mythical kings of Sweden and semi-legendary kings of Sweden, many of these kings are only mentioned in various saga and blend with Norse mythology.
The title Sveriges och Götes Konung was last used for Gustaf I of Sweden, after which the title became "King of Sweden, of the Goths and of the Wends" (Sveriges, Götes och Vendes Konung) in official documentation. Up until the beginning of the 1920s, all laws in Sweden were introduced with the words, "We, the king of Sweden, of the Goths and Wends". This title was used up until 1973.<ref> Kungl. Maj:ts kungörelse med anledning av konung Gustaf VI Adolfs frånfälle. SFS 1973:702. Justitiedepartementet L6, 19 September 1973.</ref> The present King of Sweden, Carl XVI Gustaf was the first monarch officially proclaimed "King of Sweden" (Sveriges Konung) with no additional peoples mentioned in his title.
The term Riksdag was used for the first time in the 1540s, although the first meeting where representatives of different social groups were called to discuss and determine affairs affecting the country as a whole took place as early as 1435, in the town of Arboga.<ref name="Riksdagen">The Swedish Parliament. The history of the Riksdag. Retrieved 13 February 2007.</ref> During the assemblies of 1527 and 1544, under King Gustav Vasa, representatives of all four estates of the realm (clergy, nobility, townsmen and peasants) were called on to participate for the first time.<ref name="Riksdagen"/> The monarchy became hereditary in 1544.
Executive power was historically shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Parliament. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, a parliamentary system was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of constitutional monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic head of state with ceremonial duties.
The Riksdag of the Estates consisted of two chambers. In 1866 Sweden became a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament, with the First Chamber indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four years. In 1971 the Riksdag became unicameral. Legislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. Swedish taxation is controlled by the Riksdag (parliament).
Modern political system
Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag (Parliament) holds supreme authority in modern Sweden. This Riksdag is responsible for choosing the prime minister, who then appoints the government (the ministers). The legislative power is then shared between the parliament and the Prime Minister led government. The executive power is exercised by the government, while the judiciary is independent. Sweden lacks compulsory judicial review, although the non-compulsory review carried out by lagrådet (Law Council) is mostly respected in technical matters but less so in controversial political matters. Acts of the parliament and government decrees can be made inapplicable at every level if they are manifestly against constitutional laws. However, due to the restrictions in this form of judicial review and a weak judiciary, this has had little practical consequence.
Legislation may be initiated by the cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a simple but absolute majority and two decisions with general elections in between. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression.
The Swedish Social Democratic Party has played a leading political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1932, the cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only four general elections (1976, 1979, 1991 and 2006) have given the centre-right bloc enough seats in Parliament to form a government. There has been broad political consensus regarding the rapid extension of the welfare state,[citation needed] with government expenditure at its peak being 67 per cent of the gross domestic product. However, poor economic performance since the beginning of the 1970s, and especially the crisis at the beginning of the 1990s, have forced Sweden to reform its political system to become more like other European countries. In the 2006 general election the Moderate Party, allied with the Centre Party, Liberal People's Party, and the Christian Democrats, with a common political platform, won a majority of the votes. Together they have formed a majority government under the leadership of the Moderate party's leader Fredrik Reinfeldt.
The following political parties hold seats in the Riksdag (the most recent elections were held in September 2006; the next elections will be held in September 2010):<ref> The Official Website of the Swedish Election Authority
. Val till riksdagen
.</ref>
- Socialdemokraterna (s, Social Democrats): 130 seats, 35.0% (2002: 39.8% of votes, 144 seats)
- Moderaterna (m, Moderates): 97 seats, 26.2% (2002: 15.2% of votes, 55 seats)
- Centerpartiet (c, Centre Party): 29 seats, 7.9% (2002: 22 seats, 6.1% of votes)
- Folkpartiet (fp, Liberal People's Party): 28 seats, 7.5% (2002: 13.3% of votes, 48 seats)
- Kristdemokraterna (kd, Christian Democrats): 24 seats, 6.6% (2002: 33 seats, 9.1% of votes)
- Vänsterpartiet (v, Left Party): 22 seats, 5.8% (2002: 28 seats, 8.3% of votes)
- Miljöpartiet (mp, Greens): 19 seats, 5.2% (2002: 17 seats, 4.6% of votes)
There is also a proliferation of small or tiny political parties, of which most are joke parties, while others have stable organizations and party programmes, but few adherents.
Election turnout in Sweden has always been high in international comparisons, although it has declined in recent decades, and is currently around 80% (80.11 in general election of 2002, 81.99 in general election of 2006). Swedish politicians enjoyed a high degree of confidence from the citizens in the 1960s but it has since declined steadily and has a markedly lower level of trust than its Scandinavian neighbours.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>
Some Swedish political figures that have become known worldwide include Raoul Wallenberg, Folke Bernadotte, former Secretary General of the United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld, Olof Palme, former Prime Minister, Carl Bildt former Prime Minister and currently Foreign minister, Jan Eliasson former President of the General Assembly of the United Nations and Hans Blix former International Atomic Energy Agency inspector in Iraq.
Popular movements and equality politics
Sweden has a history of strong political involvement by ordinary people through its "popular movements" (Folkrörelser), the most notable being trade unions, the independent Christian movement, the temperance movement, the women's movement, and—more recently—the sports movement.
Sweden is currently leading the EU in statistics measuring equality in the political system and equality in the education system.<ref>[httP://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/publications/2006/keaj06001_en.pdf "report on equality between women and men 2006"]</ref> Gudrun Schyman founded the first Swedish feminist party, the Feminist Initiative party, commonly referred to simply as F!, in 2005. Ms. magazine quoted Schyman's view of Sweden's reputation for progressive initiatives: "In Sweden there’s a gap between words and reality.... Internationally a lot of people look upon Sweden as equality paradise, but that is not the truth – and now things are actually going backwards."<ref>Mosey, Chris. "Vote F! for Feminism." Ms. magazine. Fall 2006.</ref> In fact the pay gap between men and women in Sweden is 16%, higher than the EU average of 15%. Sweden compares unfavourably with the EU average when it comes to providing full-time jobs for women, with a high fraction of employed women working part-time.<ref>[httP://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/publications/2006/keaj06001_en.pdf "report on equality between women and men 2006"]</ref>
Energy politics
Modèle:Seealso The 1973 oil crisis strengthened Sweden's commitment to decrease dependence on imported fossil fuels. Since then, electricity has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. The use of nuclear power has been limited, however. Among other things, the accident of Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (USA) prompted the Swedish parliament to hold a referendum on nuclear power. The referendum led to a decision that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010.[citation needed]
In 2006, out of a total electricity production of 139 TWh, electricity from hydropower accounted for 61 TWh (44%), and nuclear power delivered 65 TWh (47%). At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 13 TWh (9%) of electricity, while wind power produced 1 TWh (1%). Sweden was a net importer of electricity by a margin of 6 TWh.<ref>[2]</ref> Biomass is mainly used to produce heat for district heating and central heating and industry processes.
In March 2005, an opinion poll showed that 83% supported maintaining or increasing nuclear power.<ref>"Nuclear Power in Sweden" - Uranium Information Centre, Australia</ref> Since then however, reports about radioactive leakages at a nuclear waste store in Forsmark, Sweden, have been published,<ref>"Swedish nuclear power station leaks high levels of radioactive waste into Baltic" - Forbes June 29, 2005</ref> although this does not seem to have changed the public support of continued use of nuclear power. Sweden decided to phase out nuclear fission before 2020,<ref name="JShad">
"NUCLEAR ENERGY IN SWEDEN", 2006, PDF wepage: Energy-SE-NucEnergy-Sweden.
</ref> although it is very unlikely that this will happen.[citation needed]
In an effort to phase out the dependency on nuclear power and fossil fuels, the Swedish government has launched a multi-billion dollar program to promote renewable energy and energy efficiency.<ref name="Agenda21"/><ref name="Vidal"/> The country has for many years pursued a strategy of indirect taxation as an instrument of environmental policy, including energy taxes in general and carbon dioxide taxes in particular.<ref name="Agenda21">Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Sweden. Agenda 21 - Natural Resource Aspects - Sweden. 5th Session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, April 1997.</ref> Also in 2005, Sweden garnered international attention by announcing its intention to break its dependence on foreign oil within 15 years, with the goal of becoming the world's first oil-free economy.<ref name="Vidal">Vidal, John. Sweden plans to be world's first oil-free economy. The Guardian, 2/8/06. Retrieved 2/13/07.</ref>
Foreign policy
Throughout the twentieth century, Swedish foreign policy was based on the principle of non-alignment in peacetime and neutrality in wartime.<ref name="NB335-339" /> "Sweden's government was left to pursue an independent course based on a foreign policy defined as nonalignment in times of peace so that neutrality would be possible in the event of war."
Sweden's doctrine of neutrality is often traced back to the 19th century as it has not participated in any war since the end of the Finnish War against Russia in 1809. During World War II Sweden joined neither the allied nor axis powers. This has been disputed by many since in effect Sweden allowed the Nazi regime to use its railroad system to transport troops and goods,<ref name="Koblik303-313" /><ref name="NB313-319" /> especially iron ore from the rich mines in northern Sweden, of vital need to the German war machine.<ref>Nordstrom p. 302: "In fact, the plans were mostly a ruse to establish control of the crucial Norwegian port of Narvik and the iron mines of northern Sweden, which were vitally important to the German war efforts."</ref><ref name="NB313-319" />
During the early Cold War era, Sweden combined its policy of non-alignment with a low profile in international affairs, although it also pursued a security policy based on strong national defence to deter attack.<ref>Nordstrom, p 336: "As a corollary, a security policy based on strong national defenses designed to discourage, but not prevent, attack was pursued. For the next several decades, the Swedish poured an annual average of about 5% of GDP into making their defenses credible."</ref> At the same time, the country maintained relatively close informal connections with the Western bloc, especially in the realm of intelligence exchange. In 1952, a Swedish DC-3 was shot down over the Baltic Sea by a Soviet MiG-15 jet fighter. Later investigations revealed that the plane was actually gathering information for NATO.[citation needed] Another plane, a Catalina search and rescue plane, was sent out a few days later and shot down by the Soviets as well. Olof Palme the former prime minister of Sweden visited Cuba during the 1970s and showed his support for Cuba in his speech which was in Spanish.[citation needed]
Beginning in the late 1960s, Sweden for a period attempted to play a more significant and independent role in international relations. This involved significant activity in international peace efforts, especially through the United Nations, and in support to the Third World. Since the murder of Olof Palme in 1986 and the end of the Cold War, this has been significantly toned down, although Sweden remains comparatively active in peace keeping missions and maintains a generous foreign aid budget.
In 1981 a Soviet Whiskey class submarine ran aground close to the Swedish naval base at Karlskrona in the southern part of the country. It has never been clearly established whether the submarine ended up on the shoals through a navigational mistake or if it was a matter of espionage against Swedish military potential. The incident triggered a diplomatic crisis between Sweden and the Soviet Union.
Since 1995 Sweden has been a member of the European Union, and as a consequence of a new world security situation the country's foreign policy doctrine has been partly modified, with Sweden playing a more active role in European security co-operation as well.
Military
The Försvarsmakten (Swedish Armed Forces) is a government agency reporting to the Swedish Ministry of Defence and responsible for the peacetime operation of the armed forces of Sweden. The primary task of the agency is to train and deploy peace support forces abroad, while maintaining the long-term ability to refocus on the defence of Sweden in the event of war. The armed forces are divided into Army, Air Force and Navy. The head of the armed forces is the Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces (Överbefälhavaren, ÖB), and after the sovereign is the most senior officer in the country.
Until the end of the Cold War, nearly all males reaching the age of military service were conscripted. In recent years, the number of conscripted males has reduced dramatically, while the number of female volunteers has increased slightly. Recruitment has generally shifted towards finding the most motivated recruits, rather than solely those otherwise most fit for service. All soldiers serving abroad must by law be volunteers. In 1975 the total number of conscripts was 45,000. By 2003 it was down to 15,000. After the Defence Proposition 2004, the number of troops in training will decrease even more to between 5,000 and 10,000 each year, while emphasizing the need to recruit only the soldiers later prepared to volunteer for international service. The total forces gathered would consist of about 60,000 men. This could be compared with the 80s before the fall of the Soviet Union, when Sweden could gather up to 1,000,000 men.
Swedish units have taken part in peacekeeping operations, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cyprus, Bosnia, Kosovo and Afghanistan.
Currently, one of the most important tasks for the Swedish Armed Forces is to form a Swedish-led EU Battle Group to which Norway, Finland and Estonia will also contribute, perhaps also Ireland. The Nordic Battle Group (NBG) is to have a 10-day deployment readiness during the first half of 2008.
Economy
Sweden is an export-oriented market economy featuring a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade. Sweden's engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. Telecommunications, the automotive industry and the pharmaceutical industries are also of great importance. Agriculture accounts for 2 percent of GDP and employment.
Sweden's industry is overwhelmingly in private control; unlike some other industrialized Western countries, such as Austria and Italy, publicly owned enterprises were always of minor importance. Eighty percent of the workforce is organized through the trade-unions which have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees.<ref>The Swedish Parliament</ref>
Sweden is known for its high taxes and large public sector. According to the statistics collected by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (see List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP), Sweden has the highest total tax revenue, as a share of the country's income, of any ranked country (as of 2005). It is also the only country in the world with a total tax revenue higher than 50%.
The Swedish Riksbank—founded in 1668 and thus making it the oldest central bank in the world—is currently focusing on price stability with its inflation target of 2%. Growth is expected to reach 3.3% in 2006. High taxes have however ensured a higher degree of government influence on household consumption decisions than in most other Western nations. Public sector spending amounts to 53% of the GDP; the high figure primarily reflects the large transfer payments of the Swedish welfare state.
Swedish unemployment figures are highly contested, with the Social-Democrats defending the official figure of 5.4% (as of 2006) and the centre-right Alliance for Sweden claiming a much higher figure. These numbers do not, however, include people in government unemployment programmes (about 2% of the workforce), people on extended sick-leave, those in early retirement or those outside the unemployment system. Unemployment is higher amongst younger people. Many Swedes work abroad in Denmark, Norway and the UK, where they are desired and viewed as a skilled workforce.[citation needed] Because of the contradiction—unemployment despite a growing commercial enterprise economy—politicians and analysts often speak of the "jobless growth". According to Eurostat the unemployment rate in February 2007 was at 6.7% down from 7.4% from February 2006.<ref>Eurostat February 2007 – Euro area unemployment down to 7.3%, March 30, 2007</ref>
Sweden also still bears scars from an economic crisis in the 1990s, which resulted in thousands of people becoming unemployed and a great national debt. Two remnants are an increase in socioeconomic segregation<ref name="ingenta">
IngentaConnect: "Markets versus planning: an assessment of the Swedish housing model in the post-war period", Nesslein T.S., Source: Urban Studies, Volume 40, Number 7, June 2003, pp. 1259-1282(24), Publisher: Routledge, webpage:
Ingenta-2003-art00005. </ref> and a national debt of approximately 1 107 billion Swedish Kronor (approx. €117,6 billion, November 2007), 45% of the GDP.<ref>Swedish National Debt Office(2006).</ref>
According to the book, The Flight of the Creative Class, by the U.S. economist, Professor Richard Florida of George Mason University, Sweden is ranked as having the best creativity in Europe for business and is predicted to become a talent magnet for the world’s most purposeful workers. The book compiled an index to measure the kind of creativity it claims is most useful to business — talent, technology and tolerance. <ref>""Sweden most creative country in Europe & top talent hotspot", Invest in Sweden Agency, 25 June 2005. The top ten countries, in descending order, are: Sweden, Japan, Finland, the US, Switzerland, Denmark, Iceland, the Netherlands, Norway and Germany.</ref>
Welfare state
In recent years, economic liberalization has ensured that Sweden is now more similar to other European countries with comparatively high tax rates. However, some still claim that the Scandinavian model is mid-way between socialism and capitalism, i.e. a mixed economy.Modèle:Who The Swedish "welfare state" model of the 20th century is an example (some economists and socialists have said) of effective use of national taxes, although others disagree about its continuing effectiveness. The Swedish welfare system remains extensive, but a recession in the 1990s forced an introduction of a number of reforms, such as education vouchers in 1992 and decentralization of some types of healthcare services to municipal control.<ref>"Law of the Labour Back Benches" - New Statesman September 6, 2004</ref>
While similar in form to other governments in Western Europe, the Swedish state is among the most active in the scope of government services provided. These include tax-funded childcare, parental leave, a ceiling on health care costs, tax-funded education (all levels up to, and including university), retirement pensions, tax-funded dental care up to 20 years of age and sick leave (partly paid by the employer). Parents are entitled to a total of 480 days partly paid leave between birth and the child's eighth birthday, with 60 days reserved specifically for each parent, in effect providing the father with two so-called "daddy-months". The ceiling on health care costs makes it easier, relative to other nations, for Swedish workers to take time off for medical reasons.
Since the late 1960s, Sweden has had the highest tax quota (as percentage of GDP) in the industrialized world, although today the difference between other high-tax countries such as France, Belgium and Denmark has narrowed. Sweden has a two step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and an additional high-income state tax of 20–25% when a salary exceeds roughly 300,000 SEK per year. The employing company pays an additional 32% of an "employer's fee". In addition, a national VAT of 25% or 18% is added to many things bought by private citizens, with the exception of food (12% VAT), transportation, and books (6% VAT). Certain items are subject to additional taxes, e.g. electricity, petrol/diesel and alcoholic beverages.
Education
As part of its social welfare system, Sweden provides an extensive childcare system that guarantees a place for all young children from 1-5 years old in a public day-care facility (förskola or dagis). Between ages 6-16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school, divided in three stages. After completing the ninth grade, 90% continue with a three-year upper secondary school (gymnasium) leading sometimes to a vocational diploma and always to qualifications for further studies at a university or university college (högskola). Both upper secondary school and university studies are financed by taxes. Some Swedes go straight to work after secondary school. Along with several other European countries, the government also subsidizes tuition of international students pursuing a degree at Swedish institutions, although there has been talk of this being changed.<ref> Fees and costs - SWEDEN.SE
. Retrieved on 2007-06-18.
</ref>. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Swedish education as the 22nd best in the world, being neither significantly higher nor lower than the OECD average.[3]
Religion
Before the eleventh century, Swedes adhered to Norse paganism, worshiping Æsir gods, with its centre at the Temple in Uppsala. With Christianization in the 11th century, the laws of the country were changed, forbidding worship of other deities into the late nineteenth century.
After the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s, the Church and state were separated and the authority of Roman Catholic bishops abolished, allowing Lutheranism to prevail. This process was completed by the Uppsala Synod of 1593. During the era following the Reformation, usually known as the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, small groups of non-Lutherans, especially Calvinist Dutchmen, the Moravian Church and Walloons or French Huguenots from Belgium, played a significant role in trade and industry, and were quietly tolerated as long as they kept a low religious profile. The Sami originally had their own shamanistic religion, but they were converted to Lutheranism by Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Not until liberalization in the late 18th century, however, were believers of other faiths, including Judaism and Roman Catholicism, allowed to openly live and work in Sweden, and it remained illegal until 1860 for Lutheran Swedes to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw the arrival of various evangelical free churches, and, towards the end of the century secularism, leading many to distance themselves from Church rituals. Leaving the Church of Sweden became legal with the so-called dissenter law of 1860, but only under the provision of entering another denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was established in the Law on Freedom of Religion in 1951.
Today about 75% of Swedes belong to the Church of Sweden, but the number is decreasing by about 1% every year, and Church of Sweden services are sparsely attended (hovering in the single digit percentages of the population).<ref>Church of Sweden, Members 1972-2006, Excel document in Swedish</ref> The reason for the large number of inactive members is partly that until 1996, children became members automatically at birth if at least one of their parents were a member. Since 1996, all children that are baptised become members. Some 275,000 Swedes are today members of various free churches (where congregation attendance is much higher), and, in addition, immigration has meant that there are now some 92,000 Roman Catholics and 100,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians living in Sweden.<ref>Statistics about free churches and immigration churches from Swedish Wikipedia - in Swedish</ref> Due to immigration, Sweden also has a significant Muslim population. As many as 500,000 are Muslims by tradition<ref>Swedish Newspaper - in Swedish</ref> and between 80,000-400,000 of these are practising Islam. (See Islam in Sweden.)
According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005,<ref name=EUROBAROMETER> Eurobarometer on Social Values, Science and technology 2005 - page 11
. Retrieved on 2007-05-05.
</ref> 23% of Swedish citizens responded that "they believe there is a god", whereas 53% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 23% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force".
Sweden ranks aside with France and Russia on having a large minority of its citizens who have no religion. Independent of these statistics, it is generally known that Swedish society, collectively, is comparatively secular and non-religious.<ref>Celsing, Charlotte. Are Swedes losing their religion?. The Swedish Institute, 1 September 2006. Retrieved 19 February 2007.</ref>
Culture
Sweden has many authors of worldwide recognition including August Strindberg, Astrid Lindgren, and Nobel Prize winners Selma Lagerlöf and Harry Martinson. In total seven Nobel Prizes in Literature has been awarded to Swedes. The nation's most well-known artists are painters such as Carl Larsson and Anders Zorn, and the sculptors Tobias Sergel and Carl Milles.
Swedish twentieth-century culture is noted by pioneering works in the early days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström. In the 1920s–1980s, the filmmaker Ingmar Bergman and actors Greta Garbo and Ingrid Bergman became internationally noted people within cinema. More recently, the films of Lukas Moodysson and Lasse Hallström have received international recognition.
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s Sweden was seen as an international leader in what is now referred to as the "sexual revolution", with gender equality having particularly been promoted.<ref>"
The Swedish Myths: True, False, or Somewhere In Between? " , Sweden.se . Retrieved on 2007-02-14 . </ref> At the present time, the number of single people is one of the highest in the world. The early Swedish film I Am Curious (Yellow) (1967) reflected a liberal view of sexuality, including scenes of love making that caught international attention, and introduced the concept of the "Swedish sin". Sweden has also become, in recent decades, fairly liberal regarding homosexuality, as is reflected in the popular acceptance of films such as Show Me Love, which is about two young lesbians in the small Swedish town of Åmål. In the absence of legislation on same-sex marriages, Sweden offers both registered partnerships and domestic partnerships for same-sex couples.
Music
Sweden has a rich musical tradition, ranging from medieval folk ballads of hip hop music. The music of the pre-Christian Norse has been lost to history, although historical re-creations have been attempted based on instruments found in Viking sites. Instruments used were the lur (a sort of trumpet), simple string instruments, wooden flutes and drums. It is possible that the Viking musical legacy lives on in some of the old Swedish folk music.
Sweden has a significant folk-music scene, both in the traditional style as well as more modern interpretations which often mix in elements of rock and jazz. Väsen is more of a traditionalist group, using a unique traditional Swedish instrument called the nyckelharpa while Garmarna, Nordman, and Hedningarna have more modern elements. There is also Saami music, called the joik, which is actually a type of chant which is part of the traditional Saami animistic spirituality but has gained recognition in the international world of folk music as well. Sweden has a major market for new age and ecologically or environmentally aware music, as well a large portion of pop and rock music have liberal and left-wing political messages.
Sweden also has a prominent choral music tradition, deriving in part from the cultural importance of Swedish folk songs. In fact, out of a population of 8.9 million, it is estimated that five to six hundred thousand people sing in choirs.<ref>Durant, Colin (2003). Choral Conducting: philosophy and practice, Routledge, pp. 46-47. ISBN 0415943566: "Sweden has a strong and enviable choral singing tradition. [..] All those interviewed placed great emphasis on the social identification through singing and also referred to the importance of Swedish folk song in the maintenance of the choral singing tradition and national identity."</ref>
ABBA was one of the first well-known popular music bands from Sweden, and still the only one that ranks among the most prominent in the world, with about 370 million records sold. With ABBA, Sweden entered into a new era, in which Swedish pop music gained international prominence. Sweden is sometimes referred to as the third largest exporter of pop and rock music in the world, after the US and the UK, but this is disputable and difficult to verify.<ref>Music in Sweden at Swedish Institute website, accessed Feb. 2007.</ref> There have been many other internationally successful bands since, and recently there has been a surge of Swedish Indie pop bands. Sweden has also become known for a large number of heavy metal (mostly death metal and melodic death metal) as well as progressive- and power metal bands. Gothenburg, the second-largest city in Sweden, is home to In Flames, Dark Tranquility, and At the Gates, three of the world's most prominent death metal bands in the world.
Sweden has a rather lively jazz scene. During the last sixty years or so it has attained a remarkably high artistic standard, stimulated by domestic as well as external influences and experiences. The Centre for Swedish Folk Music and Jazz Research has published an overview of jazz in Sweden by Lars Westin.<ref>Lars Westin: Jazz in Sweden - an overview</ref>
Sweden is the third most successful country in the Eurovision Song Contest. That includes four victories, one made by ABBA.
Media
Swedes are among the greatest consumers of newspapers in the world, and nearly every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality morning papers are Dagens Nyheter (liberal), Göteborgs-Posten (liberal), Svenska Dagbladet (conservative) and Sydsvenska Dagbladet (liberal). The two largest evening tabloids are Aftonbladet (social democratic) and Expressen (liberal). The ad-financed, free international morning paper, Metro International, was originally founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by, among others, The Local (liberal).
The public broadcasting companies held a monopoly on radio and television for long time in Sweden. Licence funded radio broadcasts started in 1925. A second radio network was started in 1954 and a third opened 1962 in response to pirate radio stations. Non-profit community radio was allowed in 1979 and in 1993 commercial local radio started.
The licence funded television service was officially launched in 1956. A second channel, TV2, was launched in 1969. These two channels (operated by Sveriges Television since the late '70s) held a monopoly until the 1980s when cable and satellite television became available. The first Swedish language satellite service was TV3 which started broadcasting from London in 1987. It was followed by Kanal 5 in 1989 (then known as Nordic Channel) and TV4 in 1990.
In 1991 the government announced it would begin taking applications from private television companies wishing to broadcast on the terrestrial network. TV4, which had previously been broadcasting via satellite, was granted a permit and began its terrestrial broadcasts in 1992, becoming the first private channel to broadcast television content from within the country.
Around half the population are connected to cable television. Digital terrestrial television in Sweden started in 1999 and the last analogue terrestrial broadcasts were terminated in 2007.
In 2007, CNN reported that Sweden became the first country to open an embassy in virtual world Second Life. The Embassy serves to promote Sweden's image and culture, rather than providing any real or virtual services.[citation needed]
Inventions
In the 18th century Sweden's scientific revolution took off. Previously, technical progress had mainly come from professionals who had immigrated from mainland Europe. In 1739, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was founded, with people such as Carolus Linnaeus and Anders Celsius as early members. From the 1870s, engineering companies were created at an unmatched rate and engineers became heroes of the age. Many of the companies founded by early pioneers are still internationally familiar. Gustaf Dalén founded AGA, and received the Nobel Prize for his sun valve. Alfred Nobel invented dynamite and instituted the Nobel Prizes. Lars Magnus Ericsson started the company bearing his name, Ericsson, still one of the largest telecom companies in the world. Jonas Wenström was an early pioneer in alternating current and is along with Tesla credited as one of the inventors of the three-phase electrical system. <ref name="si91e"/>
The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. Tetra Pak is an invention for storing liquid foods, invented by Erik Wallenberg. Håkan Lans invented the Automatic Identification System, a worldwide standard for shipping and civil aviation navigation. Losec, an ulcer medicine, was the world's best-selling drug in the 1990s and was developed by AstraZeneca. A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions, and many large multinational corporations from Sweden have their origins in the ingenuity of Swedish inventors.<ref name="si91e"> Swedish inventions and discoveries
. Fact Sheet FS 91 e
. Swedish Institute
(January 2007)
. Retrieved on 2007-10-28. </ref>
Holidays
Apart from traditional Protestant Christian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-Christian tradition. They include Midsummer celebrating the summer solstice; Walpurgis Night (Valborgsmässoafton) on 30 April lighting bonfires; Labour Day on 1 May is dedicated to socialist demonstrations; and 13 December, the day of Saint Lucia the giver of light. June 6 is the National Day of Sweden and, as of 2005, a public holiday. Furthermore, there are official flag day observances and a Namesdays in Sweden calendar. In August many Swedes have kräftskivor (crayfish dinner parties). Martin of Tours Eve is celebrated in Scania in November with Mårten Gås parties, where roast goose and svartsoppa ('black soup', made of goose stock, fruit, spices, spirits and goose blood) are served. The Sami, one of Sweden's indigenous minorities, have their holiday on 6 February and Scania celebrate their Scanian Flag day on the third Sunday in July.
Cuisine
Swedish cuisine, like that of the other Scandinavian countries (Denmark and Norway), was traditionally simple. Fish (particularly herring), meat and potatoes played prominent roles. Spices were sparse. Famous dishes include Swedish meatballs, traditionally served with gravy, boiled potatoes and lingonberry jam; pancakes, lutfisk, and Smörgåsbord, or lavish buffet. Akvavit is a popular alcoholic distilled beverage, and the drinking of snaps is of cultural importance. The traditional flat and dry crisp bread has developed into several contemporary variants. Regionally important foods are the surströmming (a fermented fish) in Northern Sweden and eel in Scania in Southern Sweden. However, Swedes have traditionally also been very open to foreign influences, ranging from the French cuisine during the eighteenth century, to the sushi and cafe latte of today.
Fashion
Sweden has in late years taken an interest in the fashion industry, through headquartering famous brands like Hennes & Mauritz (operating as H&M), J. Lindeberg (operating as JL), Gina Tricot, Tiger of Sweden and Filippa K within its borders. These companies, however, are comprised largely of buyers who import fashionable goods from throughout Europe and the Americas, continuing the trend of Swedish business toward multinational economic dependency like many of its neighbours.
Carin Wester, Nakkna, Acne, Velour, Rodebjer and Ann-Sofie Back are other important names within the Swedish fashion scene.
Public health
Modèle:Seealso Healthcare in Sweden is viewed as very developed. Sweden ranks in the top five countries with respect to low infant mortality. It also ranks high in life expectancy and in safe drinking water. World-class hospitals in Sweden include Lund University, Karolinska University Hospital, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Linköping University Hospital and Uppsala University Hospital.
Sports
Sport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating, much thanks to the heavy government subsidies of sport associations (föreningsstöd).The two main spectator sports are football (soccer) and ice hockey. Second to football, horse sports have the highest number of practitioners, mostly women. Thereafter follow golf, athletics, and the team sports of handball, floorball, basketball and bandy. American sports such as baseball and American football are practiced but do not enjoy widespread popularity.
The Swedish ice hockey team Tre Kronor is regarded as one of the best in the world and has won the World Championships seven times, and Olympic gold medals in 1994 and 2006. In 2006, as the first nation in history, they won both the Olympic and world championships in the same year. The Swedish national football team has seen some success at the World Cup in the past, finishing second when they hosted the tournament in 1958, and third twice, in 1950 and 1994. Athletics has enjoyed a surge in popularity due to several successful athletes in recent years.
In schools, on meadows and in parks, the game brännboll, a sport similar to baseball, is commonly played for fun. Other leisure sports are the historical game of kubb, and boules among the older generation.
Sweden hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the FIFA World Cup in 1958. Other big sports events held here include 1992 UEFA European Football Championship, FIFA Women's World Cup 1995, and several championships of ice hockey, athletics, skiing and bandy.
International rankings
| Name | Year | Place | Out of # | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Environmental Performance Index | 2006 | 2nd | 133 | [4] |
| Doing Business | 2006 | 13th | 175 | [5] |
| Amnesty Report | 2007 | n/a | [6] | |
| CIA World Factbook – GDP – PPP per capita | 2005 | 18th | 194 | [7] |
| International Monetary Fund – GDP (nominal) per capita | 2006 | 10th | 182 | [8] |
| Save the Children - Mother's Index Rank | 2007 | 1st | 141 | [9] |
| Save the Children - Women's Index Rank | 2007 | 1st | 141 | [10] |
| Save the Children - Children's Index Rank | 2007 | 4th | 141 | [11] |
| Save the Children - Child mortality rate | 2007 | 2nd | 141 | [12] |
| Save the Children - % seats in the national government held by women | 2004 | 1st (47%) | 141 | [13] |
| UN Human Development Index | 2006 | 5th | 177 | [14] |
| World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2006-2007 | 3rd | 125 | [15] | |
| Reporters Without Borders world-wide press freedom index | 2006 | 6th | 168 | [16] |
| The Economist Intelligence Unit's democracy index | 2006 | 1st | 167 | [17] |
| The Economist Intelligence Unit's worldwide quality of life index | 2005 | 5th | 111 | [18] |
| Nation Master's list by economic importance | 19th | 25 | [19] | |
| Nation Master's list by Technological Achievement | 4th | 68 | [20] | |
| Privacy International's European rankings on protection of civil liberties | 2006 | 24th | 25 | [21] |
| Economic freedom | 2007 | 21st | 157 | [22] |
| Global Peace Index | 2007 | 7th | 121 | [23] |
See also
- List of Sweden-related topics
- Government agencies in Sweden
- Non-governmental organizations in Sweden
- Communications in Sweden
- Tourism in Sweden
- Civil unions in Sweden
Notes
References
- Bagge, Sverre (2005). "The Scandinavian Kingdoms". In The New Cambridge Medieval History. Eds. Rosamond McKitterick et al. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 052136289X.
- CIA World Factbook – Sweden
- Council for Official Statistics. "Preliminär befolkningsstatistik 2006"Statistics Sweden.
- Durant, Colin (2003). Choral Conducting: philosophy and practice, Routledge, pp. 46-47. ISBN 0415943566.
- Einhorn, Eric and John Logue (1989). Modern Welfare States: Politics and Policies in Social Democratic Scandinavia. Praeger Publishers, 1989. ISBN 0275931889.
- Invest in Sweden Agency (ISA) (2005). Sweden most creative country in Europe and top talent hotspot. Press release, 25 June 2005.
- Koblik, Steven (1975). Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence 1750-1970. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0816607575.
- Magocsi, Paul Robert (199Image:Cool.gif. Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. University of Minnesota Press, 1998. ISBN 0802029388.
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Sweden. Agenda 21 – Natural Resource Aspects - Sweden. 5th Session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, April 1997.
- Nordstrom, Byron J. (2000). Scandinavia since 1500. University of Minnesota Press, 2000. ISBN 0816620989.
- Sawyer, Birgit and Peter Sawyer (1993). Medieval Scandinavia: from Conversion to Reformation, Circa 800–1500. University of Minnesota Press, 1993. ISBN 0816617392.
- Ståhl, Solveig. (1999). "English spoken – fast ibland hellre än bra". LUM, Lunds universitet meddelar, 7:1999, 3 September 1999. In Swedish.
- Statistics Sweden. 2006 census.
- Statistics Sweden. Preliminary Population Statistics, by month, 2004–2006. Population statistics, 1 January 2007.
- Statistics Sweden. Yearbook of Housing and Building Statistics 2007. Statistics Sweden, Energy, Rents and Real Estate Statistics Unit, 2007. ISBN 9789161813612. Available online in pdf format.
- "Sweden". In The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001-05.
- Sweden. In Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911.
- Sweden: Social and economic conditions (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- Swedish National Debt Office
- The Swedish Parliament: Laws
- United States Department of State – Sweden
- World History Database – Sweden
- Uddhammar, Emil (1993). Partierna och den stora staten: en analys av statsteorier och svensk politik under 1900-talet. Stockholm, City University Press.
- RADICAL PRINCIPLES AND THE LEGAL INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE: DOMESTIC RELATIONS LAW AND SOCIAL DEMOCRACY IN SWEDEN -- BRADLEY 4 (2): 154 -- International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family
. Retrieved on 2007-06-13.
External links
Modèle:Sisterlinks Modèle:Wikiatlas
- Modèle:Wikitravel
- Swedish Royal Court – Official website of the Swedish Royal House
- VisitSweden.com – Official travel and tourism website for Sweden
- SWEDEN.SE – The Official Gateway to Sweden
- Radio Sweden Modèle:En icon – Public service
- The Swedish Government – Official site
- The Swedish Parliament – Official site
- Study in Sweden – Official guide to studying in Sweden
- Statistiska Centralbyrån – Statistics Sweden (governmental)
- Invest in Sweden Agency – Government agency
- Swedish Trade Council
- Sweden – Economic Growth and Structural Change, 1800-2000 — EH.Net Encyclopedia
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