Jesus
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Image:Christus Ravenna Mosaic.jpg 6th century mosaic in Ravenna portrays Jesus dressed as a philosopher king in a cloak of Tyrian purple. He appears as the Pantokrator enthroned as in the Book of Revelation, with the characteristic Christian cross inscribed in the halo behind his head.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> |
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Jesus (7–2 BC/BCE to 26–36 AD/CE),<ref>Some of the historians and Biblical scholars who place the birth and death of Jesus within this range include D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo and Leon Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992, 54, 56; Michael Grant, Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels, Scribner's, 1977, p. 71; John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew, Doubleday, 1991–, vol. 1:214; E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, Penguin Books, 1993, pp. 10–11, and Ben Witherington III, "Primary Sources," Christian History 17 (199Image:Cool.gif No. 3:12–20.</ref> also known as Jesus of Nazareth, is the central figure of Christianity, and is also an important figure in several other religions. He is also called Jesus Christ, where "Christ" is a title derived from the Greek Modèle:Polytonic (Christós), meaning the "Anointed One," which corresponds to the Hebrew-derived "Messiah". The name "Jesus" is an Anglicization of the Greek Modèle:Polytonic (Iēsous), itself a Hellenization of the Hebrew יהושע (Yehoshua) or Hebrew-Aramaic ישוע (Yeshua), meaning "YHWH rescues".
The main sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Most scholars in the fields of history and biblical studies agree that Jesus was a Galilean Jew, was regarded as a teacher and healer, was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on orders of the Roman Governor Pontius Pilate under the accusation of sedition against the Roman Empire.<ref>Raymond E. Brown, The Death of the Messiah: From Gethsemane to the Grave (New York: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library 1994), p. 964; D. A. Carson, et al., p. 50–56; Shaye J.D. Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, Westminster Press, 1987, p. 78, 93, 105, 108; John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, HarperCollins, 1991, p. xi – xiii; Michael Grant, p. 34–35, 78, 166, 200; Paula Fredriksen, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews, Alfred B. Knopf, 1999, p. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266; John P. Meier, vol. 1:68, 146, 199, 278, 386, 2:726; E.P. Sanders, pp. 12–13; Geza Vermes, Jesus the Jew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press 1973), p. 37.; Paul L. Maier, In the Fullness of Time, Kregel, 1991, pp. 1, 99, 121, 171; N. T. Wright, The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions, HarperCollins, 1998, pp. 32, 83, 100–102, 222; Ben Witherington III, pp. 12–20.</ref><ref>Though many historians may have certain reservations about the use of the Gospels for writing history, "even the most hesitant, however, will concede that we are probably on safe historical footing" concerning certain basic facts about the life of Jesus; Jo Ann H. Moran Cruz and Richard Gerberding, Medieval Worlds: An Introduction to European History Houghton Mifflin Company 2004, pp. 44–45.</ref> Few critical scholars believe that all ancient texts on Jesus' life are either completely accurate<ref>Strobel, Lee. The Case for Christ: A Journalist's Personal Investigation of the Evidence for Jesus. Zondervan, 1998. ISBN 0310209307; Wright, N.T. The Challenge of Jesus: Rediscovering Who Jesus Was and Is. InterVarsity Press, 1999. ISBN 0830822003; Dunn, James D.G. The Evidence for Jesus." Westminster John Knox Press, 1985. ISBN 0664246982 </ref> or completely inaccurate.<ref>Examples of authors who argue the Jesus myth hypothesis: Thomas L. Thompson The Messiah Myth: The Near Eastern Roots of Jesus and David (Jonathan Cape, Publisher, 2006); Michael Martin, The Case Against Christianity (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991), 36–72; John Mackinnon Robertson</ref>
Christian views of Jesus (see also Christology) center on the belief that Jesus is the Messiah whose coming was promised in the Old Testament and that he was resurrected after his crucifixion. Christians predominantly believe that Jesus is God incarnate, who came to provide salvation and reconciliation with God. Nontrinitarian Christians profess various other interpretations regarding his divinity (see below). Other Christian beliefs include Jesus' Virgin Birth, performance of miracles, fulfillment of biblical prophecy, ascension into Heaven, and future Second Coming.
In Islam, Jesus (Modèle:Lang-ar, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's most beloved and important prophets, a bringer of divine scripture, a worker of miracles, and the Messiah. However, Muslims do not share the Christian belief in the crucifixion or divinity of Jesus. Muslims believe that Jesus' crucifixion was a divine illusion and that he ascended bodily to heaven. Most Muslims also believe that he will return to the earth in the company of the Mahdi once the earth has become full of sin and injustice at the time of the arrival of Islam's Antichrist-like Dajjal.
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Chronology
The most detailed accounts of Jesus' birth are contained in the Gospel of Matthew (probably written between 65 and 90 AD/CE),<ref name="mat-date">Darrell L. Bock, Jesus According to Scripture, pp. 29–30, gives a c. 60–70 date; L. Michael White, From Jesus to Christianity, p. 244, gives c. 80–90.</ref> and the Gospel of Luke (probably written between 65 and 100 AD/CE).<ref name="luke-date">Bock, ibid., p. 38, gives c. 62–70; White, ibid., p. 252, gives c. 90–100.</ref> Scholars debate over the details of Jesus' birth, and few claim to know the exact year or date of his birth or death.
The nativity accounts in the New Testament gospels of Matthew and Luke do not mention a date or time of year for the birth of Jesus. In Western Christianity, it has been traditionally celebrated on December 25 as Christmas (in the liturgical season of Christmastide), a date that can be traced as early as 330 among Roman Christians. Before then, Jesus' birth was generally celebrated on January 6 as part of the feast of Theophany,<ref> Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:454–55</ref> also known as Epiphany, which commemorated not only Jesus' birth but also his baptism by John in the Jordan River and possibly additional events in Jesus' life. (Many today in Eastern Christianity celebrate Christmas on January 7 because they continue to use the Julian calendar, in which December 25 corresponds to January 7 on the Gregorian calendar now in common usage.) Some scholars note that Luke's descriptions of shepherds' activities at the time of Jesus' birth suggest a spring or summer date.<ref> Porterm J. R. Jesus Christ: The Jesus of History, the Christ of Faith. Oxford University Press, 1999. Pg. 70 ISBN 0–19–521429–3</ref> Some scholarsModèle:Specify speculate that the December 25th date of the celebration derived from a Christian opposition to or absorption of the cult of the unconquered sun (Sol Invictus) promoted by Roman emperors in the third century in their efforts to establish a new imperial religion. The pope, Benedict XVI, has challenged this theory, arguing that a December 25th date was determined simply by calculating nine months beyond March 25th, regarded as the day of Jesus’ conception (the Feast of the Annunciation).<ref> Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (Benedict XVI), The Spirit of the Liturgy, trans. John Saward (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2000), p. 108; cf. p. 100. He regards the old theories as no longer sustainable. March 25th was also considered to be the day of Jesus’ death, and the day of creation. See also H. Rahner, Griechische Mythen in christlicher Deutung. Darmstadt, 1957. An English translation is avaliable as Greek Myths and Christian Mystery, trans. Brian Battershaw (New York: Harper Row, 1963).</ref>
In the 247th year during the Diocletian Era (based on Diocletian's ascension to the Roman throne), Dionysius Exiguus attempted to pinpoint the number of years since Jesus' birth, arriving at a figure of 753 years after the founding of Rome. Dionysius then set Jesus' birth as being December 25 1 ACN (for "Ante Christum Natum," or "before Christ (was) born"), and assigned to the following year "AD 1", "Anno Domini 1", which translates as "in the year of Lord", thereby establishing the system of numbering years from the birth of Jesus. The system was created in the then current year 532, and almost two centuries later it won acceptance and became the established calendar in Western civilization.
It is hard to date Jesus' birth because some sources are now gone and over 1,900 years have passed since the Gospels were written; however, based on a lunar eclipse that the first-century historian Josephus reported shortly before the death of Herod the Great (who plays a role in Matthew's account), as well as a more accurate understanding of the succession of Roman Emperors, Jesus' birth would have been before the year 3 BC/BCE.
The Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew both place Jesus' birth under the reign of Herod the Great. Luke describes Jesus' birth as occurring during the Roman governorship of Quirinius, and involving the first census of the Roman provinces of Syria and Iudaea. Josephus places the governorship of Quirinius, and a census, in 6 AD/CE (which Luke refers to in Modèle:Niv), long after the death of Herod the Great in 4 BC/BCE. Hence, debate has centered on whether or not the sources can be reconciled by asserting a prior governorship of Quirinius in Syria, or if an earlier census was conducted and, if not, which source to consider in error.<ref>Josephus, Antiquities 17.342–4</ref>
The date of Jesus' death is also unclear. The Gospel of John depicts the crucifixion as directly before the Passover festival on Friday 14 Nisan (called the Quartodeciman), whereas the synoptic gospels (except for Modèle:Niv) describe Jesus' Last Supper as the Passover meal on Friday 15 Nisan; however, some scholars hold that the synoptic account is harmonious with the account in John.<ref name="alternate-supper">See Leon Morris, The Gospel According to John, Revised, pp. 284–295, for a discussion of several alternate theories with references.</ref> Further, the Jews followed a lunisolar calendar with phases of the moon as dates, complicating calculations of any exact date in a solar calendar. According to John P. Meier's A Marginal Jew, which takes into consideration the procuratorship of Pontius Pilate and the dates of the Passover in those years, Jesus' death was probably on April 7, 30 AD/CE or April 3, 33 AD/CE.<ref>Meier, p.1:402</ref>
Life and teachings, as told in the Gospels
The Bible's four canonical gospels are the main sources for the traditional Christian biography of Jesus' life. Christian scholars generally believe the gospel accounts to be historically accurate; critical scholars, on the other hand, debate the extent of their historicity.
Genealogy and family
Of the four gospels, only Matthew and Luke give accounts of Jesus' genealogy. The accounts in the two gospels are substantially different, and various theories have been proposed to explain the discrepancies.<ref>Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I-IX. Anchor Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1981, pp. 499–500; I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (The New International Greek Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978, p. 158;</ref> Both accounts, however, trace his line back to King David and from there to Abraham. These lists are identical between Abraham and David, but they differ between David and Joseph. Matthew starts with Solomon and proceeds through the kings of Judah to the last king, Jeconiah. After Jeconiah, the line of kings terminated when Babylon conquered Judah. Thus, Matthew shows that Jesus is the legal heir to the throne of Israel. Luke's genealogy is longer than Matthew's; it goes back to Adam and provides more names between David and Jesus.
Joseph, husband of Mary and Jesus' father, appears in descriptions of Jesus' childhood. No mention, however, is made of Joseph during the ministry of Jesus. John's account of Jesus commending Mary into the care of the beloved disciple during his crucifixion (Modèle:Niv) suggests that Joseph had died by that time.<ref> Easton, Matthew Gallego, "Joseph (the foster father of Jesus Christ)", Christiananswers.net Retrieved April 14, 2007</ref>
The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians tell of Jesus' relatives, including what may have been brothers and sisters.<ref>Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv, and Modèle:Niv</ref> The Greek word adelphos in these verses, often translated as brother, can refer to any familial relation, and most Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians translate the word as kinsman or cousin in this context (see Perpetual virginity of Mary). Luke also mentions that Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist, was a "cousin" or "relative" of Mary (Modèle:Niv), which would make John a distant cousin of Jesus.
Nativity and early life
According to Matthew and Luke, Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea to Mary, a virgin, by a miracle of the Holy Spirit. The Gospel of Luke gives an account of the angel Gabriel visiting Mary to tell her that she was chosen to bear the Son of God (Modèle:Niv). According to Luke, an order of Caesar Augustus had forced Mary and Joseph to leave their homes in Nazareth and come to the home of Joseph's ancestors, the house of David, for the Census of Quirinius.
After Jesus' birth, the couple was forced to use a manger in place of a crib because of a shortage of accommodation (Modèle:Niv). According to Luke, an angel announced Jesus' birth to shepherds who left their flocks to see the newborn child and who subsequently publicized what they had witnessed throughout the area (see The First Noël). Matthew tells of the "Wise Men" or "Magi" who brought gifts to the infant Jesus after following a star which they believed was a sign that the King of the Jews had been born (Modèle:Niv).
Jesus' childhood home is identified as the town of Nazareth in Galilee. Except for a journey to Egypt by his family in his infancy to escape Herod's Massacre of the Innocents and a short trip to Tyre and Sidon (in what is now Lebanon), the Gospels place all other events in Jesus' life in ancient Israel.<ref>For Egypt: Modèle:Niv; For Tyre and sometimes Sidon:Modèle:Niv and Modèle:Niv</ref> According to Matthew, the family remained in Egypt until Herod's death, whereupon they returned to Nazareth to avoid living under the authority of Herod's son and successor Archelaus (Modèle:Niv).
Only Luke tells that Jesus was found teaching in the temple by his parents after being lost. The Finding in the Temple (Modèle:Niv) is the only event between Jesus' infancy and baptism mentioned in any of the canonical Gospels. According to Luke, Jesus was "about thirty years of age" when he was baptized (Modèle:Niv). In Mark, Jesus is called a carpenter. Matthew says he was a carpenter's son, suggesting to some that Jesus may have spent some of his first 30 years practicing carpentry with his father (Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv).
Baptism and Temptation
All three synoptic Gospels describe the Baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist, an event which Biblical scholars describe as the beginning of Jesus' public ministry. According to these accounts, Jesus came to the Jordan River where John the Baptist had been preaching and baptizing people in the crowd. Matthew describes John as initially hesitant to comply with Jesus' request for John to baptize him, stating that it was Jesus who should baptize him. Jesus persisted, "It is proper for us to do this to fulfill all righteousness" (Modèle:Niv). After Jesus was baptized and rose from the water, Mark states Jesus "saw the heavens parting and the Spirit descending upon Him like a dove. Then a voice came from heaven saying: 'You are My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased'" (Modèle:Nkjv). The Gospel of John does not describe the baptism, but it does attest that Jesus is the very one about whom John the Baptist had been preaching — the Son of God.
Following his baptism, Jesus was led into the desert by God where he fasted for forty days and forty nights (Modèle:Niv). During this time, the devil appeared to him and tempted Jesus three times. Each time, Jesus refused temptation with a quotation of scripture from the Book of Deuteronomy. The devil departed and angels came and brought nourishment to Jesus (Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv).
Ministry
The Gospels state that Jesus, as Messiah, came to "give his life as a ransom for many" and "preach the good news of the Kingdom of God."<ref>Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv.</ref> Over the course of his ministry, Jesus is said to have performed various miracles, including healings, exorcisms, walking on water, turning water into wine, and raising several people, such as Lazarus, from the dead (Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv, and Modèle:Niv).
The Gospel of John describes three different passover feasts over the course of Jesus' ministry. This implies that Jesus preached for a period of three years, although some interpretations of the Synoptic Gospels suggest a span of only one year.<ref>"The Thompson Chain-Reference Study Bible NIV," published December 1999, B.B. Kirkbride Bible Co., Inc.; William Adler & Paul Tuffin, "The Chronography of George Synkellos: A Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation," Oxford University Press (2002), p. 466</ref> The focus of his ministry was toward his closest adherents, the Twelve Apostles, though many of his followers were considered disciples. The Twelve Apostles and others closest to Jesus were all Jews as shown by Jesus’ statements that his mission is directed only to those of the house of Israel (Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv) and by the fact that only after the death of Jesus did the apostles agree with Paul that the teaching of the gospel could be extended to uncircumcised Gentiles (Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv). Jesus led an apocalyptic following. He preached that the end of the current world would come unexpectedly, and that he would return to judge the world, especially according to how they treated the vulnerable; for this reason, he called on his followers to be ever alert and faithful. Jesus also taught that repentance was necessary to escape hell, and promised to give those who believe in him eternal life (Modèle:Niv).
At the height of his ministry, Jesus attracted huge crowds numbering in the thousands, primarily in the areas of Galilee and Perea (in modern-day Israel and Jordan respectively).<ref>In John, Jesus' ministry takes place in and around Jerusalem.</ref> Some of Jesus' most famous teachings come from the Sermon on the Mount, which contained the Beatitudes and the Lord's Prayer. Jesus often employed parables, such as the Parable of the Prodigal Son and the Parable of the Sower. His teachings encouraged unconditional self-sacrificing God-like love for God and for all people. During his sermons, he preached about service and humility, the forgiveness of sin, faith, turning the other cheek, love for one's enemies as well as friends, and the need to follow the spirit of the law in addition to the letter.<ref>Sermon on the Mount: Modèle:Niv; Prodigal Son: Modèle:Niv; Parable of the Sower: Modèle:Niv; Agape: Modèle:Niv.</ref>
Jesus often met with society's outcasts, such as the publicani (Imperial tax collectors who were despised for extorting money), including the apostle Matthew; when the Pharisees objected to Jesus' meeting with sinners rather than the righteous, Jesus replied that it was the sick who need a physician, not the healthy (Modèle:Niv). According to Luke and John, Jesus also made efforts to extend his ministry to the Samaritans, who followed a different form of the Israelite religion. This is reflected in his preaching to the Samaritans of Sychar, resulting in their conversion (Modèle:Niv).
According to the synoptic gospels, Jesus led three of his apostles — Peter, John, and James — to the top of a mountain to pray. While there, he was transfigured before them, his face shining like the sun and his clothes brilliant white; Elijah and Moses appeared adjacent to him. A bright cloud overshadowed them, and a voice from the sky said, "This is my beloved son, with whom I am well pleased."<ref>Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv</ref> The gospels also state that toward the end of his ministry, Jesus began to warn his disciples of his future death and resurrection (Modèle:Niv).
Arrest, trial, and death
In the account given by the synoptic gospels, Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival where a large crowd came to meet him, shouting, "Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord! Blessed is the King of Israel!"<ref>The crowd was quoting Modèle:Niv; found in Modèle:Niv.</ref> Following his triumphal entry,<ref>John puts the cleansing of the temple at the start of Jesus' ministry.</ref> Jesus created a disturbance at Herod's Temple by overturning the tables of the moneychangers who set up shop there, and claiming that they had made the Temple a "den of robbers." (Modèle:Niv). Later that week, Jesus celebrated the Passover meal with his disciples — an event subsequently known as the Last Supper — in which he prophesied that he would be betrayed by one of his disciples, and would then be executed. In this ritual he took bread and wine in hand, saying: "this is my body which is given for you" and "this cup which is poured out for you is the New Covenant in my blood," and instructed them to "do this in remembrance of me" (Modèle:Niv). Following the supper, Jesus and his disciples went to pray in the Garden of Gethsemane.
While in the Garden, Jesus was arrested by temple guards on the orders of the Sanhedrin and the high priest, Caiaphas (Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Niv). The arrest took place clandestinely at night to avoid a riot, as Jesus was popular with the people at large (Modèle:Niv). Judas Iscariot, one of his apostles, betrayed Jesus by identifying him to the guards with a kiss. Simon Peter, another one of Jesus' apostles, used a sword to attack one of Jesus' captors, cutting off his ear, which, according to Luke, Jesus immediately healed miraculously.<ref>The apostle is identified as Simon Peter in Modèle:Niv; the healing of the ear is found in Modèle:Niv.</ref> Jesus rebuked the apostle, stating "all they that take the sword shall perish by the sword" (Modèle:Niv). After his arrest, Jesus' apostles went into hiding.
During the Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus, the high priests and elders asked Jesus, "Are you the Son of God?," and after he replied, "You are right in saying I am," they condemned Jesus for blasphemy (Modèle:Niv). The high priests then turned him over to the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate, based on an accusation of sedition for claiming to be King of the Jews.<ref>Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv.</ref> When Jesus came before Pilate, Pilate asked him, "Are you the king of the Jews?" to which he replied, "It is as you say." According to the Gospels, Pilate personally felt that Jesus was not guilty of any crime against the Romans, and since there was a custom at Passover for the Roman governor to free a prisoner (a custom not recorded outside the Gospels), Pilate offered the crowd a choice between Jesus of Nazareth and an insurrectionist named Barabbas. The crowd chose to have Barabbas freed and Jesus crucified. Pilate washed his hands to indicate that he was innocent of the injustice of the decision (Modèle:Niv).
According to all four Gospels, Jesus died before late afternoon at Calvary, which was also called Golgotha. The wealthy Judean Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the Sanhedrin according to Mark and Luke, received Pilate's permission to take possession of Jesus' body, placing it in a tomb.<ref>Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv.</ref> According to John, Joseph was aided by Nicodemus, who joined him to help bury Jesus, and who appears in other parts of John's gospel (Modèle:Niv). The three Synoptic Gospels tell of the darkening of the sky from twelve until three that afternoon; Matthew also mentions an earthquake (Modèle:Niv).
Resurrection and Ascension
According to the Gospels, Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion.<ref name="Resurrection">Modèle:Sourcetext; Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv</ref> The Gospel of Matthew states that an angel appeared near the tomb of Jesus and announced his resurrection to Mary Magdelene and "another Mary" who had arrived to anoint the body (Modèle:Niv). According to Luke there were two angels (Modèle:Niv), and according to Mark there was a youth dressed in white (Modèle:Niv). The "longer ending" to Mark states that on the morning of his resurrection, Jesus first appeared to Mary Magdalene (Modèle:Niv). John states that when Mary looked into the tomb, two angels asked her why she was crying; and as she turned round she initially failed to recognize Jesus until he spoke her name (Modèle:Niv).
The Acts of the Apostles state that Jesus appeared to various people in various places over the next forty days. Hours after his resurrection, he appeared to two travelers on the road to Emmaus (Modèle:Niv). To his assembled disciples he showed himself on the evening after his resurrection (Modèle:Niv). Although his own ministry had been specifically to Jews, Jesus is said to have sent his apostles to the Gentiles with the Great Commission and ascended to heaven while a cloud concealed him from their sight. According to Acts, Paul of Tarsus had a vision of Jesus during his Road to Damascus experience. Jesus promised to come again to fulfill the remainder of Messianic prophecy.<ref>Ministering to Israel: Modèle:Niv; ascension: Modèle:Niv; Modèle:NivModèle:Niv; Paul's conversion on the road to Damascus: Modèle:Niv, Modèle:Bibleverse-nb; Modèle:Bibleverse-nb; Second coming: Modèle:Niv</ref>
Fulfillment of prophecy
The Gospels present Jesus' birth, life, death, and resurrection as fulfillments of prophecies found in the Hebrew Bible. See, for example, the virgin birth, the flight into Egypt, Immanuel (Isaiah 7:14), and the suffering servant. <ref name="Christianity.com"> "What the Old Testament Prophesied About the Messiah"
. Retrieved on 2007-10-11.
</ref>
Historicity
Scholars have used the historical method to develop probable reconstructions of Jesus' life. Some scholars draw a distinction between Jesus as reconstructed through historical methods and Jesus as understood through a theological point of view, while other scholars hold that a theological Jesus represents a historical figure.<ref>See, for an example of the latter, Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth. Doubleday, 2007. ISBN 978-0-385-52341-7</ref> The main sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. One recent study has stated that biblical scholars and most historians accept the historical existence of Jesus and regard claims against his existence as "effectively refuted".<ref>"The nonhistoricity thesis has always been controversial, and it has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines and religious creeds. ... Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted." - Robert E. Van Voorst, Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), p. 16.</ref>
Constructing a historical Jesus
Historians generally describe Jesus as an itinerant preacher and leader of a religious movement within Judaism.<ref>Harrison, John B. and Richard E. Sullivan. A short history of Western civilization. New York: Knopf. 1975.</ref> According to biblical reconstruction, Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist, taught in parables and aphorisms, challenged pious traditions, legalism and social hierarchy, and was crucified by the Romans. Historians are divided over whether Jesus followed a career of healing and exorcism, preached the end of the world was imminent, and saw his crucifixion as inevitable.
Most scholars agree the Gospel of Mark was written about the time of the destruction of the Jewish Temple by the Romans under Titus in the year 70, and that the other gospels were written between 70–100.<ref>Meier (1991), pp.43–4</ref> The historical outlook on Jesus relies on criticism of the Bible, especially the gospels. Many scholars have sought to reconstruct Jesus' life in terms of contemporaneous political, cultural, and religious currents in Israel, including differences between Galilee and Judea, and between different sects such the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes and Zealots,<ref>For a comparison of the Jesus movement to the Zealots, see S. G. F. Brandon, Jesus and the Zealots: a study of the political factor in primitive Christianity, Manchester University Press (1967) ISBN 0–684–31010–4</ref><ref name="comparison">For a general comparison of Jesus' teachings to other schools of first century Judaism, see John P. Meier, Companions and Competitors (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Volume 3) Anchor Bible, 2001. ISBN 0–385–46993–4.</ref> and in terms of conflicts among Jews in the context of Roman occupation.
Ties to religious groups
The Gospels record that Jesus was a Nazarene, a term commonly taken to refer to his place of birth, but sometimes as a religious affiliation.<ref name="comparison">.</ref> Some scholars speculate that Jesus was himself a Pharisee.<ref>Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the Talmud and other Jewish literature. Maccoby, Hyam Jesus the Pharisee, Scm Press, 2003. ISBN 0–334–02914–7; Falk, Harvey Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus, Wipf & Stock Publishers (2003). ISBN 1–59244–313–3.</ref> In Jesus' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the House of Hillel, which had been founded by the eminent Tanna, Hillel the Elder, and the House of Shammai. Jesus' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their teachings on divorce (Modèle:Niv).<ref>Neusner, Jacob A Rabbi Talks With Jesus, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2000. ISBN 0–7735–2046–5. Rabbi Neusner contends that Jesus' teachings were closer to the House of Shammai than the House of Hillel.</ref> Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel's teachings (Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 31a) concerning the greatest commandment (Modèle:Niv) and the Golden Rule (Modèle:Niv).
Other scholars theorize that Jesus was an Essene, a sect of Judaism not mentioned in the New Testament.<ref>Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the Dead Sea Scrolls, especially the Teacher of Righteousness and Pierced Messiah. Eisenman, Robert James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Penguin (Non-Classics), 1998. ISBN 0–14–025773-X; Stegemann, Hartmut The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus. Grand Rapids MI, 1998. See also Broshi, Magen, "What Jesus Learned from the Essenes," Biblical Archaeology Review, 30:1, pg. 32–37, 64. Magen notes similarities between Jesus' teachings on the virtue of poverty and divorce, and Essene teachings as related in Josephus' The Jewish Wars and in the Damascus Document of the Dead Sea Scrolls, respectively. See also Akers, Keith The Lost Religion of Jesus. Lantern, 2000. ISBN 1-930051-26-3.</ref> Still other scholars hypothesize that Jesus led a new apocalyptic sect, possibly related to John the Baptist,<ref>The Gospel accounts show both John the Baptist and Jesus teaching repentance and the coming Kingdom of God.</ref>
Still other scholars conjecture that Jesus was a failed apocalyptic prophet <ref>See Schwietzer, Albert The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, pp. 370–371, 402. Scribner (196Image:Cool.gif, ISBN 0–02–089240–3; Ehrman, Bart Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium, Oxford University Press USA, 1999. ISBN 0–19–512474-X. Crossan, however, makes a distinction between John's apocalyptic ministry and Jesus' ethical ministry. See Crossan, John Dominic, The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus, pp. 305–344. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0–06–061659–8.</ref> who became early Christian after the Great Commission spread his teachings to the Gentiles.<ref>This includes the belief that Jesus was the Messiah. Brown, Michael L. Answering Jewish Objections to Jesus: Messianic Prophecy Objections Baker Books, 2003. ISBN 0–8010–6423–6. Brown shows how the Christian concept of Messiah relates to ideas current in late Second Temple period Judaism. See also Klausner, Joseph, The Messianic Idea in Israel: From its Beginning to the Completion of the Mishnah, Macmillan 1955; Patai, Raphael, Messiah Texts, Wayne State University Press, 1989. ISBN 0–8143–1850–9; Crossan, John Dominic, The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus, pg. 461. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0–06–061659–8. Patai and Klausner state that one interpretation of the prophecies reveal either two Messiahs, Messiah ben Yosef (the dying Messiah) and Messiah ben David (the Davidic King), or one Messiah who comes twice. Crossan cites the Essene teachings about the twin Messiahs. Compare to the Christian doctrine of the Second Coming.</ref> This is distinct from an earlier commission Jesus gave to the twelve Apostles, limited to "the lost sheep of the house of Israel" and specifically excluding the Gentiles or Samaritans (Modèle:Niv).
Names and titles
According to most historians, Jesus probably lived in Galilee for most of his life and he probably spoke Aramaic and Hebrew.<ref>Brian Knowles: Which Language Did Jesus Speak – Aramaic or Hebrew?</ref> The name "Jesus" is an English transliteration of the Latin (Iēsus) which in turn comes from the Greek name Iesous (Modèle:Polytonic). The name has also been translated into English as "Joshua."<ref>"Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 14, 2007.</ref> Since most scholars hold that Jesus was an Aramaic-speaking Jew living in Galilee around 30 AD/CE, it is highly improbable that he had a Greek personal name. Further examination of the Septuagint finds that the Greek, in turn, is a transliteration of the Hebrew/Aramaic Yeshua (ישוע) (Yeshua — he will save) a contraction of Hebrew name Yehoshua (יהושוע Yeho — Yahweh [is] shua` — help/salvation, usually Romanized as Joshua). As a result, scholars believe that one of these was most likely the name that Jesus was known by during his lifetime by his peers.<ref>Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. p. 558; John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205–7;</ref>
Christ (which is a title and not a part of his name) is an Anglicization of the Greek term for Messiah (χριστός, from the verb χρίω "to anoint"), and literally means "anointed one." Historians have debated what this title might have meant at the time Jesus lived; some historians have suggested that other titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament had meanings in the first century quite different from those meanings ascribed today.<ref>Vermes, "Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels"</ref>
The titles "Divine", "Son of God", "God", "God from God", "Lord", "Redeemer", "Liberator", and "Saviour of the World" were collectively applied to the first Roman emperor Augustus, who died in 14 AD/CE. John Dominic Crossan considers that the application of them to Jesus by the early Christians would have been regarded as denying them of Augustus. "They were taking the identity of the Roman emperor and giving it to a Jewish peasant. Either that was a peculiar joke and a very low lampoon, or it was what the Romans called majestas and we call high treason." <ref> Crossan, John Dominic, God and Empire, 2007, p. 28</ref>
Sources on Jesus' life
Most Biblical scholars hold that the works describing Jesus were initially communicated by oral tradition, and were not committed to writing until several decades after Jesus' crucifixion. The earliest extant texts which refer to Jesus are Paul's letters, which are usually dated from the mid-1st century. Paul wrote that he only saw Jesus in visions, but that they were divine revelations and hence authoritative (Modèle:Niv). The earliest extant texts describing Jesus in any detail were the four Gospels. These texts, being part of the Biblical canon, have received much more analysis and acceptance from Christian sources than other possible sources for information on Jesus.
Many other early Christian texts detail events in Jesus' life and teachings, though they were not included when the Bible was canonized due to a belief that they were pseudepigraphical, not inspired, or written too long after his death, while others were suppressed because they contradicted Christian orthodoxy. It took several centuries before the list of what was and was not part of the Bible became finally fixed, and for much of the early period the Book of Revelation was not included while works like The Shepherd of Hermas were.
Books that were not included are known as the New Testament apocrypha. These include the Gospel of Thomas, a collection of logia — phrases and sayings attributed to Jesus without a narrative framework, only rediscovered in the 20th century. Other important apocryphal works that had a heavy influence in forming traditional Christian beliefs include the Apocalypse of Peter, Protevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, and Acts of Peter. A number of Christian traditions (such as Veronica's veil and the Assumption of Mary) are found not in the canonical gospels but in these and other apocryphal works.
Possible earlier texts
Some texts with even earlier historical or mythological information on Jesus are speculated to have existed prior to the Gospels,<ref>Bettenson, Henry and Maunder, Chris. Documents of the Christian Church (3rd edition), Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0–19–288071–3 </ref> though none have been found other than the Pauline epistles. Based on the unusual similarities and differences between the Synoptic Gospels — Matthew, Mark and Luke, the first three canonical gospels — many Biblical scholars have suggested that oral tradition and logia (such as the Gospel of Thomas and the theoretical Q document)<ref>Gaztambide, Daniel. "The Synoptic Problem: Two-Source Hypothesis and Q", AramaicNT.org, Retrieved April 14, 2007.</ref> probably played a strong role in initially passing down stories of Jesus, and may have inspired some of the Synoptic Gospels.
Specifically, many scholars believe that the Q document and the Gospel of Mark were the two sources used for the gospels of Matthew and Luke; however, other theories, such as the older Augustinian hypothesis, continue to hold sway with some Biblical scholars. Another theoretical document is the Signs Gospel, believed to have been a source for the Gospel of John.<ref>Gaztambide, Daniel. "So Sayeth The Lord... According to Who?", AramaicNT.org, Retrieved April 14, 2007.</ref>
There are also early non-canonical gospels which may predate the canonical Gospels, although few surviving fragments have been found. Among these are the Unknown Berlin Gospel, the Oxyrhynchus Gospels, the Egerton Gospel, the Fayyum Fragment, the Dialogue of the Saviour, the Gospel of the Ebionites, the Gospel of the Hebrews, and the Gospel of the Nazarenes.<ref>Miller, Robert J. ed. (1994) The Complete Gospels: Annotated Scholars Version. Polebridge Pres: Sonoma, CA. pp. 1–5.</ref>
Questions of reliability
The authors of the Gospels are traditionally thought to have been witnesses to the events included. However, as a result of the time gap between events and the writing of the Gospels where they are described, the accuracy of early texts describing the details of Jesus' life have been disputed by various parties. Several historians claim unreliability of the gospel accounts as often biased and second-hand, and as frequently dating from several decades after the events described. Scholars and historians who maintain that the Gospel accounts of Jesus are historically reliable point out that, in terms of ancient history, the Gospels were written a short time after the events.<ref>"The New Testament was complete, of substantially complete, about AD 100, the majority of the writings being in existence twenty to forty years before this ...the situation is encouraging from the historian's point of view, for the first three Gospels were written at a time when many were alive who could remember the things that Jesus said and did... At any rate, the time elapsing between the evangelic events and the writing of most of the New Testament books was, from the standpoint of historical research, satisfactorily short." Bruce, F. F.: The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?, pp. 12-14, InterVarsity Press, USA, 1997.</ref> Paul Barnett pointed out that "scholars of ancient history have always recognized the 'subjectivity' factor in their available sources" and "have so few sources available compared to their modern counterparts that they will gladly seize whatever scraps of information that are at hand." He noted that modern history and ancient history are two separate disciplines, with differing methods of analysis and interpretation.<ref>Barnett, Paul, "Is the New Testament History?," p.1.</ref>
After the original oral stories were written down in Greek, they were transcribed, and later translated into other languages. This is not unique to the Bible — other documents of antiquity have been scrutinized for gaps between the date of an event and the date it was written. Having been written, the New Testament sources encountered insignificant changes, according to scholars such as the late Sir Frederic Kenyon (1863- - 1952).<ref>"The interval then between the dates of the original composition and the earliest extant evidence becomes so small as to be in fact negligible, and the last foundation for any doubt that the Sciptures have come down to us substantially as they were written has now been removed. Both the authenticity and the general integrity of the books of the New Testament may be regarded as finally established." As quoted in Bruce, F. F.: The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?, p. 20, InterVarsity Press, USA, 1997.</ref>
Contemporary textual critic Bart D. Ehrman cites numerous places where the gospels, and other New Testament books, were apparently altered by Christian scribes.<ref name = "Misquoting">Ehrman, Bart (2005). Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-073817-0.</ref> The scribes, largely amateurs, worked to make the gospels more similar and to remove verses that could be taken to support unorthodox beliefs common in early Christianity.<ref name = "Misquoting"/> For example, Luke portrays Jesus as implacable in the face of his crucifixion, contrary to Mark, which portrays him in agony. Ehrman considers that verses in Luke in which Jesus sweats blood to be a later interpolation, made to include agony in Luke's account.<ref name = "Misquoting"/>
The Age of Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution brought skepticism regarding the historical accuracy of these texts. Although some critical scholars, including archaeologists, continue to use them as points of reference in the study of ancient Near Eastern history,<ref>Hawkins, Craig S. "The Book of Acts and Archaeology", Apologetics Information Ministry, Retrieved April 14, 2007.</ref> others have come to view the texts as cultural and literary documents, generally regarding them as part of the genre of literature called hagiography, an account of a holy person regarded as representing a moral and divine ideal. Hagiography has as its primary aim the glorification of the religion itself and of the example set by the perfect holy person represented as its central focus.
The views of intellectuals who entirely reject Jesus' historicity are summarized in the chapter on Jesus in Will Durant's Caesar and Christ. It is based on a scarcity of eyewitness accounts, a lack of direct archaeological evidence, the failure of specific ancient works to mention Jesus, and similarities between early Christianity and contemporary mythology.<ref>Durant 1944:553–7</ref>
Those who have a naturalistic view of history generally do not believe in divine intervention or miracles, such as the resurrection of Jesus mentioned by the Gospels. One method used to estimate the factual accuracy of stories in the gospels is known as the "criterion of embarrassment," which holds that stories about events with embarrassing aspects (such as the denial of Jesus by Peter, or the fleeing of Jesus' followers after his arrest) would likely not have been included if those accounts were fictional.<ref name="A Marginal Jew"> Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Doubleday: 1991. vol 1: p. 168–171. </ref>
Possible external influence
Some scholars suggest that the gospel accounts of Jesus have little or no historical basis. They point to similarities between stories about Jesus and older myths of pagan god-men such as Mithras, Attis and Osiris-Dionysus. Their theory is that the pagan myths were adopted by some authors of early accounts of Jesus to form a syncretism with Christianity. Authors such as Earl Doherty carry this even further and propose that the gospels are actually a reworking of non-Abrahamic myths and not based on a historical figure.<ref name="asmyth">Michael Martin; John Mackinnon Robertson; G.A. Wells. The Jesus Legend, Chicago: Open Court, 1996, p xii.</ref> Some Christian authors, such as Justin Martyr, suggest that the myths were created by ancient pagans who took prophetic attributes of the Messiah as taught in the Pentateuch and applied them to their particular deity.
In 1962, Judaic scholar Samuel Sandmel cautioned against the view that the stories about Jesus were adapted from older myths and adapted the term "Parallelomania" to describe it. "We might for our purposes define parallelomania as that extravagance among scholars which first overdoes the supposed similarity in passages and then proceeds to describe source and derivation as if implying a literary connection flowing in an inevitable or predetermined direction."<ref>Sandmel, Samuel. "Parallelomania," Journal of Biblical Literature 1 (Mar. 1962)</ref> In the book Reinventing Jesus, the authors put forth the position that "Only after 100 (AD/CE) did the mysteries begin to look very much like Christianity, precisely because their existence was threatened by this new religion. They had to compete to survive."<ref>Komoszewski et al (2006), Reinventing Jesus, Kregel, p.237</ref> Michael Grant states in Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels that "Judaism was a milieu to which doctrines of the deaths and rebirths of mythical gods seemed so entirely foreign that the emergence of such a fabrication from its midst is very hard to credit."<ref>Grant, Michael, Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels, Scribner, 1995 p. 199. ISBN 0–684–81867–1</ref> However, the Catholic Encyclopedia states that Justin Martyr "told his pagan readers that the virgin birth of Jesus Christ ought not to seem incredible to them, since many of the most esteemed pagan writers spoke of a number of sons of Zeus". <ref>http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15448a.htm</ref>
Religious perspectives
Status as a Prophet
In Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, Aetherius Society, Raëlism (a non-monotheistic faith), Ahmadiyya, United Submitters International, Jesus is considered a prophet. Many Gnostic groups such as Manichaeism also considered Jesus to have been a prophet.
Christian views
Though Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to describe a general majority Christian view by examining the similarities between Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican and specific Protestant doctrines found in their catechetical or confessional texts.<ref>This section draws on a number of sources to determine the doctrines of these groups, especially the early Creeds, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, works contained in the Book of Concord, and others.</ref> This view, given below as the Principal view, does not encompass all groups which describe themselves as Christian, with other views immediately following.
Majority view
Christians predominately profess that Jesus is the Messiah (Greek: Christos; English: Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament,<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church §436–40; Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 2; Irenaeus Adversus Haereses in Patrologia Graeca ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1857–1866) 7/1, 93; Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv</ref> who, through his life, death, and resurrection, restored humanity's communion with God in the blood of the New Covenant. His death on a cross is understood as the redemptive sacrifice: the source of humanity's salvation and the atonement for sin<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church §606–618; Council of Trent (1547) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum (1965) §1529;Modèle:Niv</ref> which had entered human history through the sin of Adam.<ref>Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 9; Augsburg Confession, article 2; Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 8; Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv.</ref>
They profess Jesus to be the only Son of God, the Lord,<ref>Apostle's Creed; Nicene Creed; Catechism of the Catholic Church §441–451; Augsburg Confession, article 3; Luther's Small Catechism, commentary on Apostle's Creed; Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv</ref> and the eternal Word (which is a translation of the Greek Logos),<ref>Augsburg Confession, article 3; Modèle:Niv</ref> who became man in the incarnation,<ref>Apostle's Creed; Nicene Creed; Catechism of the Catholic Church §461–463;Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 2; Luther's Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed; Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv</ref> so that those who believe in him might have eternal life.<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church §456–460; Gregory of Nyssa, Orat. catech. 15 in Patrologia Graeca ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1857–1866) 45, 48B; St. Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 3.19.1 in ibid. 7/1, 939; St. Athanasius, De inc., 54.3 in ibid. 25, 192B. St. Thomas Aquinas, Opusc. in ibid. 57: 1–4; Modèle:Niv</ref> They further hold that he was born of the Virgin Mary by the power of the Holy Spirit in an event described as the miraculous virgin birth or Incarnation.<ref>Apostle's Creed; Nicene Creed; Catechism of the Catholic Church §484–489, 494–507; Luther's Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed</ref> In his life Jesus proclaimed the "good news" (Middle English: gospel; Greek: euangelion) that the coming Kingdom of Heaven was at hand,<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church §541–546</ref> and established the Christian Church, which is the seed of the kingdom, into which Jesus calls the poor in spirit.<ref>Apostle's Creed; Catechism of the Catholic Church §551–553; Augsburg Confession, article 8; Luther's Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed; Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 9; Leo the Great, Sermo 4.3 in Patrologia Latina ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1841–1855); Modèle:Niv </ref> Jesus' actions at the Last Supper, where he instituted the Eucharist, are understood as central to communion with God and remembrance of Jesus' sacrifice.<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church"§1322–1419; Martin Luther, Augsburg Confession, article 10; Luther's Small Catechism: the Sacrament of the Altar</ref>
Christians also predominately profess that Jesus suffered death by crucifixion,<ref>Apostle's Creed; Nicene Creed;Luther's Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed; Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 9</ref> descended into Hell (variously understood as either the place of eternal punishment or place of the dead),<ref>'Apostle's Creed; Catechism of the Catholic Church §632–635; Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 3; Augsburg Confession, article 3; Council of Rome (745) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum (1965) §587; Benedict XII, Cum dudum (1341) in ibid. §1011; Clement VI, Super quibusdam (1351) in ibid. §1077; Council of Toledo IV (625) in ibid. §485; Modèle:Niv</ref> and rose bodily from the dead in the definitive miracle that foreshadows the resurrection of humanity at the end of time,<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church §638–655; Byzantine Liturgy, Troparion of Easter; Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 4 and 17; Augsburg Confession, article 3; Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 9.</ref> when Christ will come again to judge the living and the dead, resulting in election to Heaven or damnation to Hell.<ref>Apostle's Creed; Nicene Creed, Catechism of the Catholic Church §668–675, 678–679; Luther's Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed; Modèle:Niv</ref>
In the second century, the Roman official and writer, Pliny the Younger (63 - ca. 113), stated that Christians were "singing responsively a hymn to Christ as to god" (carmenque Christo quasi deo dicere secum invicem).<ref>Pliny the Younger: C. Plinius Traino Imperatori Liber Decimus Epistula XCVI</ref> Between 325 and 681, Christians theologically articulated and refined their view of the nature of Jesus by a series of seven ecumenical councils (see Christology). These councils described Jesus as one of the three divine hypostases or persons of the Holy Trinity: the Son is defined as constituting, together with God the Father and the Holy Spirit, the single substance of the One God.<ref>Nicene Creed; Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 1; Augsburg Confession, article 1; Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 3; Council of Nicaea I (325) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum (1965) §126; Council of Constantinople II (553) in ibid. §424 and 424; Council of Ephesus in ibid. §255; Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv; Modèle:Niv</ref> Furthermore, Jesus is defined to be one person with a fully human and a fully divine nature, a doctrine known as the Hypostatic union<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church §464–469; Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 2 and 3 Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 9; Council of Ephesus (431) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum (1965) §250; Council of Ephesus in ibid. §251; Council of Chalcedon (451) in ibid. §301 and 302; Modèle:Niv</ref> (an articulation not accepted by Oriental Orthodoxy, see Nestorianism, Monophysitism and Miaphysitism).
According to the New Testament, Jesus accepted worship (Modèle:Bibleref2; Modèle:Bibleref2), was accused of arrogating God's authority by telling people that their sins were forgiven (Modèle:Bibleref2), and made claims about himself including that:
- he is ("I am") before Abraham was (Modèle:Niv)
- he and the Father are one (Modèle:Niv)
- belief in him gives eternal life (Modèle:Niv)
- he has "all authority in heaven and on earth" (Modèle:Bibleref2)
- he is present "where two or three come together" in his name (Modèle:Bibleref2)
- he sends the Paraclete (Modèle:Bibleref2)
- he is the only way to God the Father (Modèle:Bibleref2)
In his book Jesus of Nazareth, Benedict XVI referred to Rabbi Jacob Neusner, a believing Jew, who concluded from his analysis of the Gospel texts that Jesus claimed to be God by asserting himself to be a higher authority than the Jewish Law which was given to the Jews by God through Moses.<ref> Benedict XVI (2007): Jesus of Nazareth . Double Day; See also Van Biema (2007). The Pope's Favorite Rabbi. Time Magazine. See also Murray J. Harris (199Image:Cool.gif Jesus as God . Baker Academic.</ref> In defense of Jesus' divinity, some apologists argue that there is a trilemma, or three possibilities, resulting from what they believe are Jesus' claims that he is the one God of Israel: either he is truly God, a liar, or a lunatic — the latter two of which they reject on the basis of what they see as Jesus' trustworthiness and wisdom.<ref>e.g., C.S. Lewis and Peter Kreeft (198Image:Cool.gif: "The Divinity of Jesus Christ" from Fundamentals of the Faith. Ignatius Press; Kreeft and Tacelli, Handbook of Christian Apologetics, (Madison, 1994), 149-174.</ref>
Alternative views
Current religious groups that do not accept the doctrine of the Trinity include the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Jehovah's Witnesses and the Christadelphians. Non-Trinitarian groups from history included Unitarians, and from antiquity, Arians.
Latter-day Saints (Mormons)
Latter-day Saints theology maintains that the Heavenly Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost are three separate and distinct beings, though all eternal and equally divine, who together constitute the Godhead. Though described as "one God"<ref>http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/20/28#28</ref> each play different roles: the Holy Ghost is a spirit without a physical body, the Father and Son possess distinct and perfected bodies of flesh and bone.
The Book of Mormon records that the resurrected Jesus visited and taught some of the inhabitants of the early Americas after he appeared to his apostles in Jerusalem.<ref>Modèle:Sourcetext </ref> Mormons also believe that an apostasy occurred after the death of Christ and his apostles. They believe that Christ and the Heavenly Father appeared to Joseph Smith in 1820 as part of a series of heavenly visits to restore the fullness of the gospel of Jesus Christ. They believe Jesus (not the Father) is the same as Jehovah or Yahweh of the Old Testament. See Jesus in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses believe Jesus to be God's (or Jehovah's) son, rather than being God himself. Jehovah's Witnesses believe he was the same divine created being as Michael the Archangel,<ref> “Revelation—Its Grand Climax at Hand!” –1988 | chap. 27 pp. 180-181 par. 15 “God’s Kingdom Is Born!” | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | “But who is Michael? The name “Michael” means “Who Is Like God?” So Michael must be interested in vindicating Jehovah’s sovereignty by proving that no one is to be compared to Him. In Jude verse 9, he is called “Michael the archangel.” Interestingly, the title “archangel” is used elsewhere in the Bible with reference to only one person: Jesus Christ. Paul says of him: “The Lord himself will descend from heaven with a commanding call, with an archangel’s voice”</ref> <ref> “Insight On The Scriptures 2” –1988 | p. 393 “Michael” | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | “Scriptural evidence indicates that the name Michael applied to God’s Son before he left heaven to become Jesus Christ and also after his return. Michael is the only one said to be “the archangel,” meaning “chief angel,” or “principal angel.” The term occurs in the Bible only in the singular. This seems to imply that there is but one whom God has designated chief, or head, of the angelic host. At 1 Thessalonians 4:16 the voice of the resurrected Lord Jesus Christ is described as being that of an archangel, suggesting that he is, in fact, himself the archangel” </ref> and that God made him a perfect human by transferring his life to the womb of Mary.<ref>"Jesus The Ruler Whose Origin Is From Early Times," The Watchtower (15 June 199Image:Cool.gif p. 22. | "Some centuries later came Jesus’ greatest assignment up to that time. Jehovah transferred the life force of his beloved Son from heaven into the womb of Mary. Nine months later she gave birth to a baby boy, Jesus. (Luke 2:1-7, 21)" </ref> During the time Jesus was on earth he was simply a man, not a god-man.<ref> “Reasoning From The Scriptures” –1985 © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | p. 257 par. 1 Mary (Jesus’ Mother) “Heb. 2:14, 17, JB: “Since all the children share the same blood and flesh, he [Jesus] too shared equally in it . . . It was essential that he should in this way become completely like his brothers.” (But would he have been “completely like his brothers” if he had been a God-man?)”</ref> They also believe that he is "the word" of John 1:1. This is understood to mean that he is God's spokesman, likely the one speaking in God's name to Adam, and to the Israelites in the wilderness.<ref> “Insight On The Scriptures” –1988 | p. 53 “Jesus Christ” | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | “Doubtless on many occasions during his prehuman existence as the Word, Jesus acted as Jehovah’s Spokesman to persons on earth. While certain texts refer to Jehovah as though directly speaking to humans, other texts make clear that he did so through an angelic representative. (Compare Ex 3:2-4 with Ac 7:30, 35; also Ge 16:7-11, 13; 22:1, 11, 12, 15-18.) Reasonably, in the majority of such cases God spoke through the Word. He likely did so in Eden, for on two of the three occasions where mention is made of God’s speaking there, the record specifically shows someone was with Him, undoubtedly his Son. (Ge 1:26-30; 2:16, 17; 3:8-19, 22) The angel who guided Israel through the wilderness and whose voice the Israelites were strictly to obey because ‘Jehovah’s name was within him,’ may therefore have been God’s Son, the Word.—Ex 23:20-23; compare Jos 5:13-15.” </ref> In line with this, they point out that the Bible presents him as the only way humans can approach God. They include words like 'in Jesus name' in every prayer.<ref> Watchtower 9/1/06 1 p. 28 par. 5 “Let Your Petitions Be Made Known to God” © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | “5 Jehovah does not lay down a lot of rigid rules on how to pray. Nevertheless, we need to learn the proper approach to God, which is explained in the Bible. For instance, Jesus taught his followers: “If you ask the Father for anything he will give it to you in my name.” (John 16:23) Hence, we are required to pray in Jesus’ name, recognizing Jesus as the sole channel through which God’s blessings are extended to all mankind.” </ref>They view the term "Son of God" as an indication of Jesus' importance to the creator and his status as God's "only-begotten (unique) Son,"<ref>Modèle:Niv</ref> the "firstborn of all creation,"<ref>Modèle:Niv</ref> the one "of whom, and through whom, and to whom, are all things."<ref>Modèle:Niv</ref> They believe that Jesus died on a single-piece torture stake, not a cross.<ref>"What Do They Believe?", Watchtower Bible and Tract Society c.f., Retrieved April 14, 2007</ref> They believe that he is currently ruling in heaven as king of God's heavenly Kingdom, and will soon extend his rule to earth for a reign of peace. <ref>"Who is Jesus Christ?", The Watchtower, September 15 2005, Retrieved December 3 2007.</ref> He is now immortal<ref> “Insight On The Scriptures” –1988 © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | it-1 p. 1197 Incorruption “Raised to Immortality and Incorruption. Christ Jesus entered into immortality upon his resurrection from the dead, thereafter possessing “an indestructible life.” (1Ti 6:15, 16; Heb 7:15-17)”</ref> and can never die again.<ref> The Watchtower © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | 10/1/06 p. 5 You Can Live Forever |”the apostle Paul explains: “Christ, now that he has been raised up from the dead, dies no more; death is master over him no more.” (Romans 6:9)” | </ref>
Unity
The Unity Church considers Jesus the master teacher and "way show-er," citing Jesus' frequent calls to emulate him rather than worship him, and the ability of others to be like him, such as in John 10:34 and John 14:12. Jesus is not worshiped as God, but regarded as someone who had achieved a complete connection with God the Father.
Christadelphians
Christadelphians believe that Jesus is literally God's son, hence the Biblical title son of God,<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> not God the Son. They believe that Jesus was in God's plan right from the beginning of creation,<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> but that he came into existence at his birth.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Quoting Biblical passages such as Modèle:Niv, they maintain that Jesus was fully human, and that Jesus' total humanity was vital in saving people from their sins. This, Christadelphians believe, would not have been possible had Jesus actually been God.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> They believe that Jesus is now in heaven, at God's right hand, waiting to return to the Earth to establish God's kingdom here forever.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>
Other alternative views
Others believe that the one God, who revealed himself in the Old Testament as Jehovah, came to earth, taking on the human form of Jesus Christ. They believe Jesus is Jehovah, is the Holy Spirit, and is the one Person who is God. Examples of such churches today are Oneness Pentecostals and the New Church.
Other early views
Various early Christian groups and theologians held differing views of Jesus. The Ebionites, an early Jewish Christian community, believed that Jesus was the last of the prophets and the Messiah. They believed that Jesus was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, and thus they rejected the Virgin Birth. The Ebionites were adoptionists, believing that Jesus was not divine, but became the son of God at his baptism. They rejected the Epistles of Paul, believing that Jesus kept the Mosaic Law perfectly and wanted his followers to do the same. However, they felt that Jesus' crucifixion was the ultimate sacrifice, and thus animal sacrifices were no longer necessary. Therefore, some Ebionites were vegetarian and considered both Jesus and John the Baptist to have been vegetarians.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities, Oxford, 2003, p. 102.</ref>
In Gnosticism, Jesus is said to have brought the secret knowledge (gnosis) of the spiritual world necessary for salvation.<ref>McManners, John, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 26–31.</ref> Their secret teachings were paths to gnosis, and not gnosis itself. While some Gnostics were docetics, other Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of Christ during his baptism.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities, Oxford, 2003, p. 124–125.</ref> Many Gnostics believed that Christ was an Aeon sent by a higher deity than the evil demiurge who created the material world. Some Gnostics believed that Christ had a syzygy named Sophia. The Gnostics tended to interpret the books that were included in the New Testament as allegory, and some Gnostics interpreted Jesus himself as an allegory. The Gnostics also used a number of other texts that did not become part of the New Testament canon.
Marcionites were 2nd century Gentile followers of the Christian theologian Marcion of Sinope. They believed that Jesus rejected the Jewish Scriptures, or at least the parts that were incompatible with his teachings.<ref>Wace, Henry, "Commentary on Marcion", Retrieved April 16, 2007</ref> Seeing a stark contrast between the vengeful God of the Old Testament and the loving God of Jesus, Marcion came to the conclusion that the Jewish God and Jesus were two separate deities. Like some Gnostics, Marcionites saw the Jewish God as the evil creator of the world, and Jesus as the savior from the material world. They also believed Jesus was not human, but instead a completely divine spiritual being whose material body, and thus his crucifixion and death, were divine illusions. Marcion was the first known early Christian to have created a canon, which consisted of ten Pauline epistles, and a version of the Gospel of Luke (possibly without the first two chapters that are in modern versions, and without Jewish references),<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities, Oxford, 2003, p. 103, p. 104–105, p.108</ref> and his treatise on the Antithesis between the Old and New Testaments. Marcionism was declared a heresy by proto-orthodox Christianity.
Montanists in the 2nd century and Sabellius in the 3rd century taught that the Trinity represented not three persons but a single person in three "modes."
Islamic views
Islam holds Jesus (Modèle:Lang-ar `Īsā) to have been a messenger of God who had been sent to guide the Children of Israel (banī isrā'īl) with a new scripture, the Injīl (gospel).<ref> The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, p.158 </ref> According the Qur'an, believed by Muslims to be God's final revelation, Jesus was born to Mary (Arabic: Maryam) as the result of virginal conception, a miraculous event which occurred by the decree of God (Arabic: Allah). To aid him in his quest, Jesus was given the ability to perform miracles. These included speaking from the cradle, curing the blind and the lepers, as well as raising the dead; all by the permission of God. Furthermore, Jesus was helped by a band of disciples (the ḥawāriyūn). Islam states that Jesus was not killed nor crucified by the Jews, but that he had been raised alive up to heaven. Islamic traditions narrate that he will return to earth near the day of judgement to restore justice and defeat al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl (lit. "the false messiah", also known as the Antichrist) and the enemies of Islam. As a just ruler, Jesus will then die.<ref name="EoQ"/><ref name="EoI-Isa">"Isa", Encyclopedia of Islam</ref>
Like all prophets in Islam, Jesus is considered to have been a Muslim, as he preached for people to adopt the straight path in submission to God's will. Islam rejects that Jesus was God or the son of God, stating that he was an ordinary man who, like other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message. Islamic texts forbid the association of partners with God (shirk), emphasizing the notion of God's divine oneness (tawhīd). As such, Jesus is referred to in the Qur'an frequently as the "son of Mary" ("Ibn Maryam").<ref name="EoI-Isa"/><ref>Fasching, deChant (2001) p. 241</ref> Numerous titles are given to Jesus in the Qur'an, such as mubārak (blessed) and `abd-Allāh (servant of God). Another title is al-Masīḥ ("the messiah; the anointed one" i.e. by means of blessings), although it does not correspond with the meaning accrued in Christian belief. Jesus is seen in Islam as a precursor to Muhammad, and is believed by Muslims to have foretold the latter's coming.<ref name="EoI-Isa"/>
Ahmadiyya views
The Ahmadiyya Movement is a movement that originated in a small town in India during the 19th century and now numbers over 10 million followers worldwide. They believe Jesus survived the crucifixion and fled eastwards, migrating to Kashmir, where he died a natural death at an old age, under the name Yuz Asaf Issa. They believe his grave is located in Srinagar, India. This view has also been taken up by some western authors. <ref>Ahmad, M. M. "The Lost Tribes of Israel: The Travels of Jesus", Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, Retrieved April 14, 2007. This view has also been taken up by some western authors, Günter Grönbold, Jesus In Indien, München: Kösel 1985, ISBN 3466202701. Norbert Klatt, Lebte Jesus in Indien?, Göttingen: Wallstein 1988.</ref>
The Ahmadiyya Movement hold the view that the prophecy concerning Jesus' second coming was meant as a spiritual return and was fulfilled in the person of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the movement, whom they also regard as the Imam Mahdi (Messiah).
Judaism's view
Judaism holds the idea of Jesus being God, or part of a Trinity, or a mediator to God, to be heresy.<ref>Emunoth ve-Deoth, II:5</ref> Judaism also holds that Jesus is not the Messiah, arguing that he had not fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah.<ref>Simmons, Shraga, "Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus", Retrieved April 15, 2007; "Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus", Ohr Samayach — Ask the Rabbi, Retrieved April 15, 2007; "Why don't Jews believe that Jesus was the messiah?", AskMoses.com, Retrieved April 15, 2007</ref>
The Mishneh Torah (an authoritative work of Jewish law) states:
- Even Jesus the Nazarene who imagined that he would be Messiah and was killed by the court, was already prophesied by Daniel. So that it was said, "And the members of the outlaws of your nation would be carried to make a (prophetic) vision stand. And they stumbled"<ref>Daniel 11.14</ref>. Because, is there a greater stumbling-block than this one? So that all of the prophets spoke that the Messiah redeems Israel, and saves them, and gathers their banished ones, and strengthens their commandments. And this one caused (nations) to destroy Israel by sword, and to scatter their remnant, and to humiliate them, and to exchange the Torah, and to make the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God. However, the thoughts of the Creator of the world — there is no force in a human to attain them because our ways are not God's ways, and our thoughts not God's thoughts. And all these things of Jesus the Nazarene, and of (Muhammad) the Ishmaelite who stood after him — there is no (purpose) but to straighten out the way for the King Messiah, and to restore all the world to serve God together. So that it is said, "Because then I will turn toward the nations (giving them) a clear lip, to call all of them in the name of God and to serve God (shoulder to shoulder as) one shoulder" <ref>Zephaniah 3.9</ref>. Look how all the world already becomes full of the things of the Messiah, and the things of the Torah, and the things of the commandments! And these things spread among the far islands and among the many nations uncircumcised of heart. (Hilkhot Melakhim 11:10–12)<ref>"Hilchot Malachim (laws concerning kings) (Hebrew)", MechonMamre.org, Retrieved April 15, 2007</ref>
Reform Judaism, the modern progressive movement, states For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an apostate. (Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #6Image:Cool.gif.<ref>"Question 18.3.4: Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice?", faqs.org, Retrieved April 15, 2007</ref>
According to Jewish tradition, there were no more prophets after 420 BC/BCE, Malachi being the last prophet, who lived centuries before Jesus. Judaism states that Jesus did not fulfill the requirements set by the Torah to prove that he was a prophet. Even if Jesus had produced such a sign that Judaism recognized, Judaism states that no prophet or dreamer can contradict the laws already stated in the Torah, which Judaism states Jesus did.<ref>Devarim 13:1–5</ref><ref>Buchwald, Ephraim, "Parashat Re'eh 5764–2004: Identifying a True Prophet", National Jewish Outreach Program, Retrieved April 15, 2007; Tracey Rich, "Prophets and Prophecy", Judaism 101, Retrieved April 15, 2007; Rabbi Pinchas Frankel, "Covenant of History: A Fools Prophecy", Orthodox Union of Jewish Congregations of America, Retrieved April 15, 2007; Laurence Edwards, "Torat Hayim — Living Torah: No Rest(s) for the Wicked", Union of American Hebrew Congregations, Retrieved April 15, 2007</ref>
Buddhist views
Buddhists' views of Jesus differ, since Jesus is not mentioned in any Buddhist text. Some Buddhists, including Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama<ref>Beverley, James A., Hollywood's Idol, Christianity Today, "Jesus Christ also lived previous lives," he said. "So, you see, he reached a high state, either as a Bodhisattva, or an enlightened person, through Buddhist practice or something like that," Retrieved April 20, 2007</ref> regard Jesus as a bodhisattva who dedicated his life to the welfare of human beings. Both Jesus and Buddha advocated radical alterations in the common religious practices of the day. There are occasional similarities in language, such as the use of the common metaphor of a line of blind men to refer to religious authorities with whom they disagreed <ref>DN 13.15</ref><ref>Matthew 15:14</ref>. Some believe there is a particularly close affinity between Buddhism (or Eastern spiritual thought generally) and the doctrine of Gnostic texts such as The Gospel of Thomas<ref>"Gospel of Thomas:The Buddhist Jesus?" Retrieved April 15, 2007.</ref>.
Hindu views
Hindu beliefs about Jesus vary. Contemporary Sant Mat movements regard Jesus as a Satguru. Ramakrishna believed that Jesus was an Incarnation of God.<ref name="Ramakrishna">The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Introduction by Swami Nikhilananda, p. 34.</ref> Swami Vivekananda has praised Jesus and cited him as a source of strength and the epitome of perfection.<ref name="vivekananda">Christ the Messenger. Retrieved April 15, 2007.</ref> Paramahansa Yogananda taught that Jesus was the reincarnation of Elisha and a student of John the Baptist, the reincarnation of Elijah.<ref>Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi, 2nd ed., Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2005. ISBN 1–56589–212–7.</ref> Mahatma Gandhi considered Jesus one of his main teachers and inspirations for nonviolent resistance, saying "I like your Christ, I do not like your Christians. Your Christians are so unlike your Christ."<ref> wikiquote:Mahatma Gandhi; Taylor, Dan. "The Jesus So Few Know," The Good News A Magazine of Understanding, Retrieved April 15, 2007.</ref>
Bahá'í views
The Bahá'í Faith considers Jesus, along with Muhammad, the Buddha, Krishna, and Zoroaster, and other messengers of the great religions of the world to be Manifestations of God (or prophets), with both human and divine stations.<ref name="stockman">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> In their divine station Bahá'ís view them in essential unity with each other and with God, and in their human station they view them as distinct individuals.<ref name="stockman" /> Thus, in the Bahá'í view, Jesus incarnates God's attributes, perfectly reflecting and expressing them.<ref name="stockman" /> However, the Bahá'í view rejects the belief that the essence of God was perfectly or completely contained in Jesus or any other human body, since Bahá'í scripture emphasizes the transcendence of the essence of God.<ref name="stockman" /> Jesus is believed to be the "Son of God" though not literally a biological son. The title "Son of God" in the Bahá'í view is seen as entirely spiritual and shows the close relationship between him and God.<ref name="log">Letter by Shoghi Effendi on November 29, 1937, published in Modèle:Cite book</ref>
Bahá'ís accept Jesus as the Messiah foretold in the Jewish Scriptures. They believe though that their messenger, Bahá'u'lláh is the symbolic return of Christ expected during the last days.<ref name="progressive_revelation">Modèle:Cite book</ref> In the Bahá'í view religion is progressively revealed by God through messengers/prophets, and the messengers from God are all the spiritual return of the messengers before them.<ref name="progressive_revelation" />
Mandaean views
Mandaeanism regards Jesus as a deceiving prophet (mšiha kdaba) of the false Jewish god of the Old Testament, Adonai,<ref>Mandaean Scriptures and Fragments: The Haran Gawaitha Retrieved April 20, 2007</ref> and an opponent of the good prophet John the Baptist, who is considered a great teacher in Mandaeanism.
Other views
The New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus. Some New Age practitioners (such as the creators of A Course In Miracles) claim to go so far as to trance-channel his spirit. However, the New Age movement generally teaches that Christhood is something that all may attain. Theosophists, from whom many New Age teachings originated (a Theosophist named Alice A. Bailey invented the term New Age), refer to Jesus of Nazareth as the Master Jesus and believe he had previous incarnations and is presently one of the Cosmic Masters of the Ancient Wisdom (deities responsible for governing the planet Earth).
Many writers emphasize Jesus' moral teachings. Garry Wills argues that Jesus' ethics are distinct from those usually taught by Christianity.<ref> Wills, Garry, What Jesus Meant (2006) ISBN 0–670–03496–7</ref> The Jesus Seminar portrays Jesus as an itinerant preacher who taught peace and love, rights for women and respect for children, and who spoke out against the hypocrisy of religious leaders and the rich.<ref>Crossan, John Dominic, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, HarperSanFrancisco (1993), ISBN 0–06–061629–6; Robert Funk, The Five Gospels: What Did Jesus Really Say? The Search for the AUTHENTIC Words of Jesus, Harper San Francisco (1997), ISBN 0–06–063040-X; Robert Funk, The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?, The Jesus Seminar, Harper San Francisco (199Image:Cool.gif, ISBN 0–06–062978–9; The Jesus Seminar, The Gospel of Jesus: According to the Jesus Seminar, Robert Walter Funk (Editor), Polebridge Press (1999), ISBN 0–944344–74–7</ref> Thomas Jefferson, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and a deist, created the Jefferson Bible entitled "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth" that included only Jesus' ethical teachings because he did not believe in Jesus' divinity or any of the other supernatural aspects of the Bible.
Philosopher and atheist Bertrand Russell saw Jesus' teachings and values as surpassed by other philosophers; Russell writes 'I cannot myself feel that either in the matter of wisdom or in the matter of virtue Christ stands quite as high as some other people known to History. I think I should put Buddha and Socrates above Him in those respects.'<ref>Russell, Bertrand, Why I am not a Christian, March 6, 1927, Retrieved April 15, 2007</ref> Friedrich Nietzsche saw Socrates and Jesus as foundational to Western culture and criticized them both. He considered Jesus' concern for the weak to be a reversal of noble morality and accused Christianity of spreading the concept of equal rights for all, which he opposed.<ref>Nietzsche, Friedrich. "The Anti-Christ", sections 54, 43</ref>
Legacy
According to most Christian interpretations of the Bible, the theme of Jesus' teachings was that of repentance, unconditional love,<ref>Modèle:Niv</ref> forgiveness of sin, grace, and the coming of the Kingdom of God.<ref>Sniegocki, John. "Review of Joseph GRASSI, Peace on Earth: Roots and Practices from Luke's Gospel," Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 2004 (repentance, forgiveness); Bock, Darrell L. "Major Themes of Jesus' life," (coming of the Kingdom of God); Brussat, Frederic and Mary Ann. "Review of If Grace Is So Amazing, Why Don't We Like It?," (grace); Hughes, F. A. "Grace and Truth," STEM publishing 1972 (grace)</ref> Starting as a small Jewish sect,<ref name="isbn0-7591-0015-2">Modèle:Cite book</ref> it developed into a religion clearly distinct from Judaism several decades after Jesus death. Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire under a version known as Nicene Christianity and became the state religion under Constantine the Great. Over the centuries, it spread to most of Europe, and around the world.
Jesus has been drawn, painted, sculpted and portrayed on stage and in films in many different ways, both serious and humorous. The figure of Jesus features prominently in art and literature. A number of popular novels, such as The Da Vinci Code, have also portrayed various ideas about Jesus, and a number of films, such as The Passion of the Christ, have portrayed his life, death, and resurrection. Many of the sayings attributed to Jesus have become part of the culture of Western civilization. There are many items purported to be relics of Jesus, of which the most famous are the Shroud of Turin and the Sudarium of Oviedo.
Other legacies include a view of God as more lovingly parental, merciful, and more forgiving, and the growth of a belief in a blissful afterlife and in the resurrection of the dead. His teaching promoted the value of those who had commonly been regarded as inferior: women, the poor, ethnic outsiders, children, prostitutes, the sick, prisoners, etc. For over a thousand years, countless hospitals, orphanages, and schools have been founded explicitly in Jesus' name. Jesus and his message have been interpreted, explained and understood by many people. Jesus has been explained notably by Paul of Tarsus, the Church Fathers, including Augustine of Hippo, Martin Luther, and more recently by C.S. Lewis and Pope John Paul II. Thomas Jefferson considered Jesus' teaching to be "the most sublime and benevolent code of morals which has ever been offered to man."<ref>The Jefferson Bible Retrieved April 20, 2007</ref>
For some Jews, the legacy of Jesus has been a history of Christian antisemitism,<ref> "Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate" by William Nicholls, 1993. Published by Jason Aronson Inc., 1995; "Mature Christianity: The Recognition and Repudiation of the Anti-Jewish Polemic in the New Testament" Norman A. Beck, Susquehanna Univ. Press, 1985; "The Satanizing of the Jews: Origin and development of mystical anti-Semitism" Joel Carmichael, Fromm, 1993; "The Origins of Anti-Semitism: Attitudes Toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian Antiquity" John G. Gager, Oxford Univ. Press, 1983; "What Did They Think of the Jews?" Edited by Allan Gould, Jason Aronson Inc., 1991; "The New Testament's Anti-Jewish Slander and Conventions of Ancient Polemic," Luke Johnson, Journal of Biblical Literature, Volume 3, 1989; "Three Popes and the Jews" Pinchas E. Lapide, Hawthorne Books, 1967; "National Socialism and the Roman Catholic Church" Nathaniel Micklem, Oxford Univ. Press, 1939; Theological Anti-Semitism in the New Testament," Rosemary Radford Ruether, Christian Century, Feb. 1968, Vol. 85; "John Chrysostom and the Jews" Robert L. Wilken, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1983</ref> although in the wake of the Holocaust many Christian groups have gone to considerable lengths to reconcile with Jews and to promote interfaith dialog and mutual respect. For others, Christianity has often been linked to European colonialism (see British Empire, Portuguese Empire, Spanish Empire, French colonial empire, Dutch colonial empire).<ref>Of Revelation and Revolution, Volume 1: Christianity, Colonialism, and Consciousness in South Africa by Jean Comaroff, John L. Comaroff 1991 University of Chicago Press; A Violent Evangelism: The Political and Religious Conquest of the Americas by Luis Rivera Pagan 1992 Westminster Press; The Americas in the Spanish World Order: The Justification for Conquest in the 17th Century by James Muldoon 1994 University of Pennsylvania Press; An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the Making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914 by J.P. Daughton 2006 Oxford University Press; Contracting Colonialism: Translations and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society Under Early Spanish Rule by Vicente L. Rafael 1988 Cornell University Press; Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural Communication Since 1500; With Special Reference to Caste, Conversion, and Colonialism (Studies in the History of Christian Missions) edited by Robert Eric Frykenberg and Alaine Low 2003 Wm. B. Eerdmans</ref> Conversely, some have argued that through Bartolomé de las Casas defense of the indigenous inhabitants of Spain's New World empire, one of the legacies of Jesus has been the notion of universal human rights.
See also
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References
- Allison, Dale. Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1999. ISBN 0–8006–3144–7
- Brown, Raymond E.. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday, 1997. ISBN 0–385–24767–2
- Cohen, Shaye J.D. From the Maccabees to the Mishnah. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1988. ISBN 0–664–25017–3
- Cohen, Shaye J.D. The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. ISBN 0–520–22693–3
- Crossan, John Dominic.
- Guy Davenport and Benjamin Urrutia. The Logia of Yeshua; The Sayings of Jesus. Washington, DC: 1996. ISBN 1–887178–70–8
- De La Potterie, Ignace. "The Hour of Jesus." New York: Alba House, 1989.
- Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. ISBN 0–671–11500–6
- Ehrman, Bart. The Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0–19–514183–0
- Ehrman, Bart. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0–19–515462–2
- Fredriksen, Paula. Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity. New York: Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0–679–76746–0
- Fredriksen, Paula. From Jesus to Christ. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. ISBN 0–300–04864–5
- Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology, revised ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. ISBN 1–56563–143–9.
- Fuller, Reginald H., The Foundations of New Testament Christology. New York: Scribners, 1965. ISBN 022717075X
- Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, New York: Anchor Doubleday,
- v. 1, The Roots of the Problem and the Person, 1991. ISBN 0–385–26425–9
- v. 2, Mentor, Message, and Miracles, 1994. ISBN 0–385–46992–6
- v. 3, Companions and Competitors, 2001. ISBN 0–385–46993–4
- O'Collins, Gerald. Interpreting Jesus. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1983.
- Pelikan, Jaroslav. Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 0–300–07987–7
- Robinson, John A. T. Redating the New Testament. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001 (original 1977). ISBN 1–57910–527–0.
- Sanders, E.P. The Historical Figure of Jesus. New York: Penguin, 1996. ISBN 0–14–014499–4
- Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1987. ISBN 0–8006–2061–5
- Vermes, Geza. Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1981. ISBN 0–8006–1443–7
- Vermes, Geza. The Religion of Jesus the Jew. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1993. ISBN 0–8006–2797–0
- Vermes, Geza. Jesus in his Jewish Context. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0–8006–3623–6
- Wilson, A.N. Jesus. London: Pimlico, 2003. ISBN 0–7126–0697–1
- Wright, N.T. Jesus and the Victory of God. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1997. ISBN 0–8006–2682–6
- Wright, N.T. The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0–8006–2679–6
External links
- Religious views
- Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ In Parallel Latin & English — The Complete Christ Sayings
- Jesus Christ Catholic Encyclopedia article
- Christian Foundations: Jesus articles from a Protestant perspective
- Latter-day Saint statement on the divinity of Jesus Christ
- The Christ of India A Hindu perspective on Jesus
- An Islamic perspective on Jesus
- Ahmadiyya views on Jesus
- BiblicalStudies.org.uk Offers an extensive bibliography plus numerous full-text articles.
- Historical and skeptical views
- Overview of the Life of Jesus A summary of New Testament accounts.
- From Jesus to Christ — A Frontline documentary on Jesus and early Christianity.
- The Jewish Roman World of Jesus
- The Jesus Puzzle — Earl Doherty's website.
Modèle:PersondataModèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA af:Jesus van Nasaret am:ኢየሱስ ang:Iesus ar:يسوع an:Chesús de Nazaret arc:ܝܫܘܥ ast:Xesús az:İsa bm:Yesu Krista bn:যিশু zh-min-nan:Iâ-so͘ ba:Ғайса be-x-old:Езус Хрыстус bi:Jisas Kraes bs:Isus br:Jezuz Nazaret bg:Исус Христос bxr:Иисус Христос ca:Jesús de Natzaret cv:Иисус Христос ceb:Jesus cs:Ježíš Kristus ny:Yesu Kristu cy:Iesu da:Jesus fra Nazaret pdc:Yeesus Grischdus de:Jesus von Nazaret dv:އީސާ މަސީހު et:Jeesus el:Ιησούς Χριστός es:Jesús de Nazaret eo:Jesuo Kristo eu:Jesus Nazaretekoa ee:Yesu Kristo fa:عیسی fr:Jésus de Nazareth fur:Jesus ga:Íosa Críost gd:Iosa Chrìosd gl:Xesús de Nazareth ki:Jesu Kristo got:𐌹𐌴𐍃𐌿𐍃 𐍇𐍂𐌹𐍃𐍄𐌿𐍃/Iesus Xristus hak:Yâ-sû ko:예수 ha:Yesu Kristi hy:Հիսուս Քրիստոս hi:ईसा मसीह hr:Isus ig:Jisọs Kraịst ilo:Jesus id:Yesus Kristus ia:Jesus Christo zu:UJesu Krestu is:Jesús it:Gesù he:ישו kl:Jesus Kristus kn:ಯೇಸು ಕ್ರಿಸ್ತ ka:იესო ქრისტე kk:Иса Мәсіх kw:Yesu Krist sw:Yesu kv:Исус Христос kg:Yesu ht:Jezi ku:Îsa lo:ພະເຍຊູ la:Iesus lv:Jēzus Kristus lb:Jesus vun Nazaret lt:Jėzus Kristus lij:Gesû Cristo li:Zjezus Christus lg:Jesu Kristo hu:Jézus mk:Исус Христос mg:Jesoa ml:യേശു ക്രിസ്തു mt:Ġesù Kristu mi:Ihu Karaiti ms:Jesus Christ cdo:Ià-sŭ mn:Есүс Христ na:Jesu Kristo fj:Jisu Karisito nl:Jezus (traditioneel-christelijk benaderd) nds-nl:Jezus Christus ne:येशु क्राइस्ट ja:イエス・キリスト pih:Jesus no:Jesus Kristus nn:Jesus nrm:Jésus-Chrît oc:Jèsus om:Yesus Kristos ug:ئەيسا پەيغەمبەر uz:Iso Masih pa:ਈਸਾ ਮਸੀਹ pms:Gesù ëd Nàsaret nds:Jesus Christus pl:Jezus Chrystus pt:Jesus ty:Iesu Mesia ksh:Jesus Christus ro:Iisus din Nazaret rm:Gesu da Nazaret qu:Jesus ru:Иисус Христос sm:Iesu Keriso sg:Jésus Christ sco:Jesus Christ st:Jesu Kreste sq:Jezusi scn:Gesù Cristu simple:Jesus sk:Ježiš Kristus sl:Jezus Kristus so:Ciise sr:Исус Христос sh:Isus fi:Jeesus sv:Jesus tl:Hesus ta:இயேசு கிறிஸ்து kab:Ɛisa tt:Ğaysa te:యేసుక్రీస్తు th:พระเยซู vi:Giê-su tg:Исо tpi:Jisas to:Sīsū Kalaisi tr:İsa tk:Isa Pygamber tw:Yesu Kristo uk:Ісус Христос ur:عیسیٰ علیہ السلام vec:Gesù vls:Jezus van Nazareth wo:Yéesu-kristaa wuu:耶稣 yi:יוזל zh-yue:耶穌 cbk-zam:Jesus bat-smg:Jiezos Krėstos zh:耶稣
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