Afghanistan

Un article de Vev.

(Différences entre les versions)

Version du 24 décembre 2007 à 20:57

Modèle:Protected Modèle:Infobox Country Afġānistān, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان, Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامى جمهوريت ), is a landlocked country that is located in the heart of Asia. It is variously designated as located geographically within Central Asia<ref>[1], [2]</ref>, the Middle East<ref>UT - MENIC, Afghanistan Profile, National Geographic (accessed 20 January 2006), Afghanistan, CIA Factbook (accessed 20 January 2006), Afghanistan, Middle East Institute (accessed 20 January 2006).</ref>, or South Asia<ref name="SouthAsia">University of California, [3], University of Pennsylvania, World Bank; US maps; [4] ; University of Washington Syracuse University</ref>. It has religious, ethno-linguistic, and geographic links with most of its neighbors. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east,<ref name="India">Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory.</ref> Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast. The name Afghanistan means the "Land of Afghans."

Afghanistan is a culturally mixed nation, a crossroads between the East and the West, and has been an ancient focal point of trade and migration. It has an important geostrategical location, connecting South Asia, Central Asia and Southwest Asia. During its long history, the land has seen various invaders and conquerors, while on the other hand, local entities invaded the surrounding vast regions to form empires to themselves. Ahmad Shah Durrani created a large empire in the middle of the eighteenth century, with its capital at Kandahar.<ref>Ahmad Shah Durrani, Britannica Concise.</ref> Subsequently, most of its territories were ceded to former neighboring countries. In the 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in "The Great Game" played between the British Indian Empire and Russian Empire. On August 19, 1919, following the third Anglo-Afghan war, the country regained full independence from the United Kingdom over its foreign affairs.

Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan has suffered continuous and brutal civil war, which included foreign interventions in the form of the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the 2001 US invasion of Afghanistan, in which the ruling Taliban government was toppled.

In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council authorized the creation of an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). This force, composed of NATO troops, has been involved in assisting the government of President Hamid Karzai in establishing authority across the nation. In 2005, the United States and Afghanistan signed a strategic partnership agreement committing both nations to a long-term relationship. In the meantime, about 40 billion US dollars have also been provided by the international community for the reconstruction of the country. Despite this, as of November 2007, the British Government was still advising against all travel to most of Afghanistan due to "ongoing military activity and lawlessness".

Etymology

Main articles: Origins of the name Afghan and List of country name etymologies

The name Afghānistān translates to the "Land of Afghans". Its modern usage derives from the word Afghan.

Origin of the word "Afghan"

There are different theories about the origin of the word Afghan, its age, and its meaning. Some believe that "Afghan" is formed from "Apagân".<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica, Afghanistan History, Online Edition LINK</ref> The Pashtuns began using the term Afghan as a name for themselves from at least the Islamic period and onwards. According to W. K. Frazier Tyler, M. C. Gillet and several other scholars, "The word Afghan first appears in history in the Hudud-al-Alam in 982 AD."

In this regard the Encyclopædia Iranica states:<ref>"Afghan" (with ref. to "Afghanistan: iv. Ethnography") by Ch. M. Kieffer, Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition 2006.</ref>

From a more limited, ethnological point of view, "Afghān" is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan (and the non-Paštō-speaking ethnic groups generally) designate the Paštūn. The equation [of] Afghan [and] Paštūn has been propagated all the more, both in and beyond Afghanistan, because the Paštūn tribal confederation is by far the most important in the country, numerically and politically.

It further explains:

The term "Afghān" has probably designated the Paštūn since ancient times. Under the form Avagānā, this ethnic group is first mentioned by the Indian astronomer Varāha Mihira in the beginning of the 6th century CE in his Brihat-samhita.

Meaning and origin of the name "Afghanistan"

The last part of the name, -stān, is an Indo-Iranian suffix for "place", prominent in many languages of the region.

The term "Afghanistan," meaning the "Land of Afghans," was mentioned by the sixteenth century Mughal Emperor Babur in his memoirs, referring to the territories south of Kabul that were inhabited by Pashtuns (called "Afghans" by Babur).<ref>"Transactions of the year 908" by Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur in Bāburnāma, translated by John Leyden, Oxford University Press: 1921.</ref>

Until the 19th century the name was only used for the traditional lands of the Pashtuns, while the kingdom as a whole was known as the Kingdom of Kabul, as mentioned by the British statesman and historian Mountstuart Elphinstone.<ref>Elphinstone, M., "Account of the Kingdom of Cabul and its Dependencies in Persia and India", London 1815; published by Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown</ref> Other parts of the country were at certain periods recognized as independent kingdoms, such as the Kingdom of Balkh in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.<ref>E. Bowen, "A New & Accurate Map of Persia" in A Complete System Of Geography, Printed for W. Innys, R. Ware [etc.], London 1747</ref>

With the expansion and centralization of the country, Afghan authorities adopted and extended the name "Afghanistan" to the entire kingdom, after its English translation, "Afghanland", had already appeared in various treaties between British Raj and Qajarid Persia, referring to the lands that were subject to the Pashtun Barakzai Dynasty of Kabul.<ref>E. Huntington, "The Anglo-Russian Agreement as to Tibet, Afghanistan, and Persia", Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Vol. 39, No. 11 (1907)</ref> "Afghanistan" as the name for the entire kingdom was mentioned in 1857 by Frederick Engels.<ref name="MECW">MECW Volume 18, p. 40; The New American Cyclopaedia - Vol. I, 1858</ref> It became the official name when the country was recognized by the world community in 1919, after regaining its full independence from the British,<ref>M. Ali, "Afghanistan: The War of Independence, 1919", Kabul [s.n.], 1960</ref> and was confirmed as such in the nation's 1923 constitution.<ref>Afghanistan's Constitution of 1923 under King Amanullah Khan (English translation).</ref>

Geography

Main article: Geography of Afghanistan

Image:Afghan topo en.jpg

Topography

Image:Northwestern Afghanistan.jpg

A valley in north western Afghanistan

Afghanistan is a land-locked and mountainous country in central Asia, with plains in the north and southwest. The highest point is Nowshak, at 7,485 m (24,557 ft) above sea level. Large parts of the country are dry, and fresh water supplies are limited. The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.<ref> History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin 1976 - 2005

. Retrieved on 2007-07-20. </ref> Afghanistan has a continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. The country is frequently subject to minor earthquakes, mainly in the northeast of Hindu Kush mountain areas. Some 125 villages were damaged and 4000 people killed by the May 30, 1998 earthquake.

Afghanistan is currently facing a serious environmental crisis. In the last two decades, Afghanistan has lost over 70% of its forests throughout the country. "More than 80% of [Afghanistan's] land could be subject to soil erosion… soil fertility is declining, salinisation is on the increase, water tables have dramatically fallen, de-vegetation is extensive and soil erosion by water and wind is widespread," said a recent report - called Sustainable Land Management 2007 - by Afghanistan's Ministry of Agriculture and Food (MoAF).<ref>Environmental crisis looms as conflict goes on</ref>

At 249,984 sq mi (647,500 km²), Afghanistan is the world's 41st-largest country (after Myanmar). Comparatively, it is slightly smaller than the U.S. state of Texas.

The country's natural resources include gold, silver, copper, zinc and iron ore in southeastern areas; precious and semi-precious stones such as lapis, emerald and azure in the north-east; and potentially significant petroleum and natural gas reserves in the north. The country also has uranium, coal, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, and salt.<ref name="CIA">Afghanistan, CIA World Factbook.</ref><ref name="AfghanMinerals">Gold and copper discovered in Afghanistan</ref><ref>http://www.wise-uranium.org/uissr05.html#NEWDISC</ref><ref>16 detained for smuggling chromites, Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref> However, these significant mineral and energy resources remain largely untapped due to the effects of the Soviet invasion and the subsequent civil war. Plans are underway to begin extracting them in the near future.<ref name="Eurasianet">Afghanistan’s Energy Future and its Potential Implications, Eurasianet.org.</ref><ref name="Pajhwok">Govt plans to lease out Ainak copper mine, Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>

History

Main article: History of Afghanistan

Though the modern state of Afghanistan was founded or created in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani,<ref>Ahmad Shah Durrani, Britannica Concise.</ref> the land has an ancient history and various timelines of different civilizations. Excavation of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree, the University of Pennsylvania, the Smithsonian Institute and others suggests that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the area were among the earliest in the world.<ref>Sites in Perspective, chapter 3 of Nancy Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide To Afghanistan.</ref><ref>Afghanistan, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 (specifically John Ford Shroder, B.S., M.S., Ph.D. Regents Professor of Geography and Geology, University of Nebraska. Editor, Himalaya to the Sea: Geology, Geomorphology, and the Quaternary and other books).</ref>

Afghanistan is a country at a unique nexus point where numerous Indo-European civilizations have interacted and often fought, and was an important site of early historical activity. Through the ages, the region has been home to various people, among them the Aryan (Indo-Iranian) tribes, such as the Kambojas, Bactrians, Persians, etc. It also has been conquered by a host of people, including the Median and Persian Empires, Alexander the Great, Kushans, Hepthalites, Arabs, Turks, and Mongols. In recent times, unsuccessful invasions from the British, Soviets, and most recently by the Americans and their allies have taken place. On the other hand, native entities have invaded surrounding regions in Iranian plateau and Indian subcontinent to form empires of their own.

Image:Persian empire 490bc Bactria.gif

The region that is now Afghanistan was for much of its history part of various Persian dynasties, such as the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire (559–330 BCE)

Between 2000 and 1200 BC, Indo-European-speaking Aryans are thought to have been in the region of northern Afghanistan. It is uncertain as to whether the Aryans themselves originated in Afghanistan and migrated south towards India and west towards Persia and then Europe, setting up a nation that during the rule of Medes and Achaemenid Persians became known as Aryānām Xšaθra or Airyānem Vāejah. Other original homelands of the Aryans have been proposed as Anatolia, South Central Asia, Iran, or Northern India, with the directions of the historical migration varying accordingly. Later, during the rule of Ashkanian, Sasanian and after, it was called Erānshahr (Modèle:PerB - Īrānšahr) meaning "Dominion of the Aryans."

It has been speculated that Zoroastrianism might have originated in what is now Afghanistan between 1800 to 800 BC, as Zoroaster lived and died in Balkh.<ref>The history of Afghanistan, Ghandara.com website</ref><ref>Afghanistan: Achaemenid dynasty rule, Ancient Classical History, about.com</ref>. Ancient Eastern Iranian languages, such as Avestan, may have been spoken in this region around the time of the rise of Zoroastrianism. By the middle of the sixth century BC, the Persian Empire of the Achaemenids supplanted the Median Empire and incorporated what was known as Persia to the Greeks within its boundaries; and by 330 BC, Alexander the Great invaded Afghanistan and conquered the surrounding regions. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the Hellenistic successor states of the Seleucids and Greco-Bactrians controlled the area, while the Mauryas from India annexed the southeast for a time and introduced Buddhism to the region until the area returned to the Bactrian rule.

Image:GBA8.jpg

Buddhas of Bamyan were among the largest Buddha statues in the world, dating back to the first century AD.

During the first century AD, the Kushans created a vast empire centered in modern Afghanistan and were patrons of Buddhist culture. The Kushans were defeated by the Sassanids in the third century. Although various rulers calling themselves Kushans (and generally known as Kushano-Sasanians) continued to rule at least parts of the region, they were probably more or less subject to the Sassanids.<ref>Dani, A. H. and B. A. Litvinsky. "The Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom." In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 103–118. ISBN 92-3-103211-9</ref> The late Kushans were followed by the Kidarite Huns<ref>Zeimal, E. V. "The Kidarite Kingdom in Central Asia." In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996, Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 119–133. ISBN 92-3-103211-9</ref> who, in turn, were replaced by the short-lived but powerful Hephthalites, as rulers of the region in the first half of the fifth century.<ref>Litvinsky, B. A. "The Hephthalite Empire." In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996, Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 135–162. ISBN 92-3-103211-9</ref> The Hephthalites were defeated by the Sasanian king Khosrau I in AD 557, who re-established Sasanian power in Persia. However, the successors of Kushans and Hepthalites established a small dynasty in Kabulistan called Kushano-Hephthalites or Kabul-Shahan/Shahi and were later defeated by the Muslim armies.

Islamic conquest

Main article: Islamic conquest of Afghanistan

In the Middle Ages, up to the nineteenth century, the region was known as Khorasan.<ref>Ali Akbar Dehkhoda, Dehkhoda Dictionary, p. 8457</ref><ref>Ghubar, Mir Ghulam Mohammad, Khorasan, 1937 Kabul Printing House, Kabul)</ref><ref>"Tajikistan Development Gateway" from History of Afghanistan by the Development Gateway Foundation</ref> Several important centers of Khorāsān are thus located in modern Afghanistan, such as Balkh, Herat, Ghazni and Kabul. It was during this period of time when Islam was introduced and spread in the area.

The region of Afghanistan became the center of various important empires, including that of the Samanids (875–999), Ghaznavids (977–1187), Seljukids (1037–1194), Ghurids (1149–1212), and Timurids (1370–1506). Among them, the periods of Ghaznavids<ref>"Ghaznavid Dynasty", Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Edition.</ref> of Ghazni, and Timurids<ref>"Timurid Dynasty", Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Edition.</ref> of Herat are considered as some of the most brilliant eras of Afghanistan's history.

In 1219 it was overrun by the Mongols under Genghis Khan, who devastated the land. Their rule continued with the Ilkhanates, and was extended further following the invasion of Timur Lang ("Tamerlane"), a ruler from Central Asia. In 1504, Babur, a descendant of both Timur Lang and Genghis Khan, established the Mughal Empire with its capital at Kabul. By the early 1700s, Afghanistan was controlled by several ruling groups: Uzbeks to the north, Safavids to the west and the remaining larger area by the Mughals or self-ruled by local Afghan tribes.

Hotaki dynasty

Main article: Hotaki dynasty

In 1709, Mir Wais Hotak, a local Afghan (Pashtun) from the Ghilzai clan, overthrew and killed Gurgin Khan, the Safavid governor of Kandahar. Mir Wais successfully defeated the Persians, who were attempting to convert the local population of Kandahar from Sunni to the Shia sect of Islam. Mir Wais held the region of Kandahar until his death in 1715 and was succeeded by his son Mir Mahmud Hotaki. In 1722, Mir Mahmud led an Afghan army to Isfahan (now in Iran), sacked the city and proclaimed himself King of Persia. However, the great majority still rejected the Afghan regime as usurping, and after the massacre of thousands of civilians in Isfahan by the Afghans – including more than three thousand religious scholars, nobles, and members of the Safavid family – the Hotaki dynasty was eventually removed from power by a new ruler, Nadir Shah of Persia.<ref>"Ašraf Ghilzai" by Prof. D. Balland, Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition 2006.</ref><ref>"The Hotakis" in "Afghanistan", Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref>

Durrani Empire

Main article: Durrani Empire

In 1738 Nadir Shah and his army, which included four thousand Pashtuns of the Abdali clan,<ref name="DurraniDynasty">"The Durranti dynasty" in "Afghanistan", Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref> conquered the region of Kandahar; in the same year he occupied Ghazni, Kabul and Lahore. On June 19, 1747, Nadir Shah was assassinated, possibly planned by his nephew Ali Qoli. In the same year, one of Nadir's military commanders and personal bodyguard, Ahmad Shah Abdali, a Pashtun from the Abdali clan, called for a loya jirga following Nadir's death. The Afghans gathered at Kandahar and chose Ahmad Shah as their King. Since then, he is often regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan.<ref name="CIA"/><ref name="Britannica">"Ahmad Shah Durrani", Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref><ref>The South, chapter 16 of Nancy Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide To Afghanistan.</ref> After the inauguration, he changed his title or clans' name to "Durrani", which derives from the Persian word Durr, meaning "Pearl".<ref name="DurraniDynasty"/>

By 1751 Ahmad Shah Durrani and his Afghan army conquered the entire present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, Khorasan and Kohistan provinces of Iran, along with Delhi in India.<ref name="MECW"/> In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired to his home in Maruf, Kandahar, where he died peacefully. He was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah Durrani, who transferred the capital from Kandahar to Kabul. Timur died in 1793 and was finally succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani.

European influence

Main article: European influence in Afghanistan

During the nineteenth century, following the Anglo-Afghan wars (fought 1839–42, 1878–80, and lastly in 1919) and the ascension of the Barakzai dynasty, Afghanistan saw much of its territory and autonomy ceded to the United Kingdom. The UK exercised a great deal of influence, and it was not until King Amanullah Khan acceded to the throne in 1919 that Afghanistan re-gained complete independence over its foreign affairs (see "The Great Game"). During the period of British intervention in Afghanistan, ethnic Pashtun territories were divided by the Durand Line. This would lead to strained relations between Afghanistan and British India – and later the new state of Pakistan – over what came to be known as the Pashtunistan debate. The longest period of stability in Afghanistan was between 1933 and 1973, when the country was under the rule of King Zahir Shah.

However, in 1973 Zahir Shah's brother-in-law, Sardar Daoud Khan, launched a bloodless coup. Daoud Khan and his entire family were murdered in 1978, when the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan launched a coup known as the Great Saur Revolution and took over the government.

Soviet invasion and civil war

Main articles: Soviet war in Afghanistan and Civil war in Afghanistan

As part of a Cold War strategy, in 1979 the United States government (under President Jimmy Carter and National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski) began to covertly fund and train anti-government Mujahideen forces through the Pakistani secret service known as Inter Services Intelligence (ISI). In order to bolster the local Communist forces, the Soviet Union—citing the 1978 Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighborliness that had been signed between the two countries—intervened on December 24, 1979. Over 100,000 Soviet troops took part in the invasion, who were backed by another 100,000 and plus pro-communist forces of Afghanistan. The Soviet occupation resulted in the killings of at least 600,000 to 2 million Afghan civilians. Over five million Afghans fled their country to Pakistan, Iran and other parts of the world. Faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties on both sides, the Soviets withdrew in 1989.

The Soviet withdrawal from the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was seen as an ideological victory in the US, which had backed the Mujahideen through three US presidential administrations in order to counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-rich Persian Gulf.

Image:Evstafiev-afghan-apc-passes-russian.jpg

Soviet troops withdrawing from Afghanistan in 1988. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev

Following the removal of the Soviet forces, the US and its allies lost interest in Afghanistan and did little to help rebuild the war-ravaged country or influence events there. The USSR continued to support President Najibullah (former head of the Afghan secret service, KHAD) until 1992 when new Russian government refused to sell oil products to Najibullah regime.<ref name="Columbia:Afghanistan:History">"Afghanistan: History", Columbia Encyclopedia.</ref>

The result of the fighting was that the vast majority of the elites and intellectuals had escaped to take refuge abroad, a dangerous leadership vacuum thereby coming into existence. Fighting continued among the victorious Mujahideen factions, eventually giving rise to a state of warlordism. The most serious fighting during this period occurred in 1994, when over 10,000 people were killed in Kabul alone. The chaos and corruption that dominated post-Soviet Afghanistan in turn spawned the rise of the Taliban. The Taliban developed as a politico-religious force, and eventually seized Kabul in 1996. By the end of 2000 the Taliban were able to capture 95% of the country, aside from the opposition (Afghan Northern Alliance) strongholds primarily found in the northeast corner of Badakhshan Province. The Taliban sought to impose a very strict interpretation of Islamic law.

During the Taliban's seven-year rule, much of the population experienced restrictions on their freedom and violations of their human rights. Women were banned from jobs, girls forbidden to attend schools or universities. Those who resisted were punished instantly. Communists were systematically eradicated and thieves were punished by amputating one of their hands or feet. Meanwhile, the Taliban managed to nearly eradicate the majority of the opium production by 2001.<ref>Afghanistan, Opium and the Taliban [5]</ref>

2001-present war in Afghanistan

Main article: War in Afghanistan (2001-present)

Following the September 11, 2001 attacks the United States launched Operation Enduring Freedom, a military campaign to destroy the al-Qaeda terrorist training camps inside Afghanistan. The US military also threatened to overthrow the Taliban government for refusing to hand over Osama bin Laden and several al-Qaida members. The US made a common cause with the former Afghan Mujahideen to achieve its ends. In December of the same year, leaders of the former Afghan mujahideen and diaspora met in Germany, and agreed on a plan for the formulation of a new democratic government that resulted in the inauguration of Hamid Karzai, an ethnic Pashtun from the southern city of Kandahar, as Chairman of the Afghan Interim Authority.

After a nationwide Loya Jirga in 2002, Karzai was chosen by the representatives to assume the title as Interim President of Afghanistan. The country convened a Constitutional Loya Jirga (Council of Elders) in 2003 and a new constitution was ratified in January 2004. Following an election in October 2004, Hamid Karzai won and became the President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Legislative elections were held in September 2005. The National Assembly – the first freely elected legislature in Afghanistan since 1973 – sat in December 2005, and was noteworthy for the inclusion of women as voters, candidates, and elected members.

Image:US soldiers stuck in sand in southern Afghanistan.jpg

U.S. soldiers stuck in sand in southern Afghanistan.

As the country continues to rebuild and recover, it is still struggling against poverty, poor infrastructure, large concentration of land mines and other unexploded ordnance on earth, as well as a huge illegal poppy cultivation and opium trade. Afghanistan also remains subject to occasionally violent political jockeying. The country continues to grapple with the Taliban insurgency and the threat of attacks from a few remaining al Qaeda.

At the start of 2007 reports of the Taliban's increasing presence in Afghanistan led the US to consider longer tours of duty and even an increase in troop numbers. According to a report filed by Robert Burns of Associated Press on January 16, 2007, "U.S. military officials cited new evidence that the Pakistani military, which has long-standing ties to the Taliban movement, has turned a blind eye to the incursions." Also, "The number of insurgent attacks is up 300 percent since September, 2006, when the Pakistani government put into effect a peace arrangement with tribal leaders in the north Waziristan area, along Afghanistan's eastern border, a U.S. military intelligence officer told reporters."

Modèle:Seealso

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Afghanistan

Politics in Afghanistan has historically consisted of power struggles, bloody coups and unstable transfers of power. With the exception of a military junta, the country has been governed by nearly every system of government over the past century, including a monarchy, republic, theocracy and communist state. The constitution ratified by the 2003 Loya jirga restructured the government as an Islamic republic consisting of three branches, (executive, legislature and judiciary).

Image:George W. Bush on a lunch break with Afghan politicians in Kabul.jpg

Politicians of Afghanistan having lunch with President Hamid Karzai and visiting U.S. President George W. Bush in Kabul on March 1, 2006.

Afghanistan is currently led by President Hamid Karzai, who was elected in October 2004. The current parliament was elected in 2005. Among the elected officials were former mujahadeen, Taliban members, communists, reformists, and Islamic fundamentalists. 28% of the delegates elected were women, 3 points more than the 25% minimum guaranteed under the constitution. This made Afghanistan, long known under the Taliban for its oppression of women, one of the leading countries in terms of female representation. Construction for a new parliament building began on August 29, 2005.

The Supreme Court of Afghanistan is currently led by Chief Justice Abdul Salam Azimi, a former university professor who had been legal advisor to the president.<ref>[6] - New Supreme Court Could Mark Genuine Departure - August 13, 2006</ref> The previous court, appointed during the time of the interim government, had been dominated by fundamentalist religious figures, including Chief Justice Faisal Ahmad Shinwari. The court had issued numerous questionable rulings, such as banning cable television, seeking to ban a candidate in the 2004 presidential election and limiting the rights of women, as well as overstepping its constitutional authority by issuing rulings on subjects not yet brought before the court. The current court is seen as more moderate and led by more technocrats than the previous court, although it has yet to issue any rulings.

Modèle:Seealso

Military and law enforcement

Main article: Military of Afghanistan

Image:AfghanistanTanks.jpg

Soldiers assigned to the 1st Afghanistan National Army (ANA) Armored Battalion, stand in formation with their T-62 Main Battle Tanks in 2003.

Afghanistan currently has 60,000 police officers. It plans to recruit 20,000 more officers so that the total number can reach up to 80,000. They are being trained by and through the Afghanistan Police Program. Although the police officially are responsible for maintaining civil order, sometimes local and regional military commanders continue to exercise control in the hinterland. Police have been accused of improper treatment and detention of prisoners. In 2003 the mandate of the International Security Assistance Force, now under command of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was extended and expanded beyond the Kabul area. However, in some areas unoccupied by those forces, local militias maintain control. In many areas, crimes have gone uninvestigated because of insufficient police and/or communications. Troops of the Afghan National Army have been sent to quell fighting in some regions lacking police protection.<ref name="LOCprof">Text used in this cited section originally came from: Afghanistan (Feb 2005) profile from the Library of Congress Country Studies project.</ref>

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Afghanistan and Districts of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is administratively divided into thirty-four (34) provinces (welayats), and for each province there is a capital. Each province is then divided into many provincial districts, and each district normally covers a city or several townships.

The Governor of the province is appointed by the Ministry of Interior, and the Prefects for the districts of the province will be appointed by the provincial Governor. The Governor is the representative of the central government of Afghanistan, and is responsible for all administrative and formal issues. The provincial Chief of Police is appointed by the Ministry of Interior, who works together with the Governor on law enforcement for all the cities or districts of that province.

There is an exception in the capital city (Kabul) where the Mayor is selected by the President of Afghanistan, and is completely independent from the prefecture of the Kabul Province.

Image:Afghanistan provinces numbered.png

Map showing the 34 provinces of Afghanistan.

</table>

Economy

Main article: Economy of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is an impoverished country, one of the world's poorest and least developed. Two-thirds of the population lives on fewer than 2 US dollars a day. The economy has suffered greatly from the recent political and military unrest since the 1979 Soviet invasion and subsequent conflicts, while severe drought added to the nation's difficulties in 1998–2001.<ref> Morales , Victor

     (2005-03-28)
   
.    Poor Afghanistan 
. Voice of America

. Retrieved on 2006-09-10. </ref><ref> North , Andrew

     (2004-03-30)
   
.    Why Afghanistan wants $27.6bn 
. BBC News

. Retrieved on 2006-09-10. </ref>

The economically active population in 2002 was about 11 million (out of a total of an estimated 29 million). As of 2005, the official unemployment rate is at 40%.<ref name="factbook econ">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html#Econ</ref> The number of non-skilled young people is estimated at 3 million, which is likely to increase by some 300,000 per annum.<ref name=Fujimura>Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute</ref>

Image:Kabul Trade Center.jpg

A business center in Kabul.

However, Afghanistan has achieved respectable economic recovery and growth since 2002. The real value of non-drug GDP increased by 29% in 2002, 16% in 2003, 8% in 2004 and 14% in 2005.<ref>Macroeconomics & Economic Growth in South Asia, The World Bank.</ref> As much as one-third of Afghanistan's GDP comes from growing poppy and illicit drugs including opium and its two derivatives, morphine and heroin, as well as hashish production.<ref name="CIA"/> Opium production in Afghanistan has soared to a new record in 2007, with an increase on last year of more than a third, the United Nations has said.<ref>Afghan opium production at record high</ref> Some 3.3 million Afghans are now involved in producing opium.<ref>UN horrified by surge in opium trade in Helmand</ref>

In a recent article in the Washington Quarterly, Peter van Ham and Jorrit Kamminga argue that the international community should establish a pilot project and investigate a licensing scheme to start the production of medicines such as morphine and codeine from poppy crops to help it escape the economic dependence on opium:<ref>http://www.twq.com/07winter/index.cfm?id=234</ref>

There is no time to waste, as Afghanistan could well be slipping back to chaos and civil strife. Tackling the drug economy is central to easing Afghanistan's ills, and the only remaining alternative is the poppies for peace proposal, using medicinal poppy cultivation as bridge to sustainable development and lasting security in Afghanistan.

On a positive note, international efforts to rebuild Afghanistan led to the formation of the Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) as a result of the December 2001 Bonn Agreement, and later addressed at the Tokyo Donors Conference for Afghan Reconstruction in 2002, where 4.5 billion US dollars were committed in a trust fund to be administered by the World Bank Group. Another 4 billion US dollars were committed in 2004 followed by 10.5 billion US dollars in early 2006 at the London Conference.<ref>Government to have greater control over aid pledged in London, irinnews.org.</ref> In early 2007, 11.6 billion dollars were committed to the country from the United States alone. Priority areas for reconstruction include the rebuilding of the educational system, health, and sanitation facilities, enhancement of administrative capacity, the development of the agricultural sector, and the rebuilding of road, energy, and telecommunication links.

According to a 2004 report by the Asian Development Bank, the present reconstruction effort is two-pronged: first it focuses on rebuilding critical physical infrastructure, and second, on building modern public sector institutions from the remnants of Soviet style planning to ones that promote market-led development.<ref name=Fujimura>Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute</ref> In 2006, two US companies, Black & Veatch and the Louis Berger Group, have won a US 1.4 billion dollar contract to rebuild roads, power lines and water supply systems of Afghanistan.<ref>"Midday Business Report: Black & Veatch unit gains piece of Afghan contract", The Kansas City Star.</ref>

One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 4 million refugees from neighbouring countries and the West, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. What is also helping is the estimated US 2–3 billion dollars in international assistance every year, the partial recovery of the agricultural sector, and the reestablishment of market institutions. Private developments are also beginning to get underway. In 2006, a Dubai-based Afghan family opened a $25 million Coca Cola bottling plant in Afghanistan.<ref>"Coca-Cola opens plant in Afghanistan", Contra Costa Times.</ref>

While the country's current account deficit is largely financed with the donor money, only a small portion – about 15% – is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations. The government had a central budget of only $350 million in 2003 and an estimated $550 million in 2004. The country's foreign exchange reserves totals about $500 million. Revenue is mostly generated through customs, as income and corporate tax bases are negligible.

Inflation had been a major problem until 2002. However, the depreciation of the Afghani in 2002 after the introduction of the new notes (which replaced 1,000 old Afghani by 1 new Afghani) coupled with the relative stability compared to previous periods has helped prices to stabilize and even decrease between December 2002 and February 2003, reflecting the turnaround appreciation of the new Afghani currency. Since then, the index has indicated stability, with a moderate increase toward late 2003.<ref name="Fujimura">Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute</ref>

The Afghan government and international donors seem to remain committed to improving access to basic necessities, infrastructure development, education, housing and economic reform. The central government is also focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. The rebuilding of the financial sector seems to have been so far successful. Money can now be transferred in and out of the country via official banking channels. Since 2003, over fourteen new banks have opened in the country, including Standard Chartered Bank, Afghanistan International Bank, Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, First Micro Finance Bank, and others. A new law on private investment provides three to seven-year tax holidays to eligible companies and a four-year exemption from exports tariffs and duties.

Image:KABULCITYMAP.jpg

The plan for Kabul's nine billion dollar future modern urban development project, the City of Light Development.

Some private investment projects, backed with national support, are also beginning to pick up steam in Afghanistan. An initial concept design called the City of Light Development, envisioned by Dr. Hisham N. Ashkouri, Principal of ARCADD, Inc. for the development and the implementation of a privately based investment enterprise has been proposed for multi-function commercial, historic and cultural development within the limits of the Old City of Kabul along the Southern side of the Kabul River and along Jade Meywand Avenue,<ref>Kabul - City of Light Project</ref> revitalizing some of the most commercial and historic districts in the City of Kabul, which contains numerous historic mosques and shrines as well as viable commercial activities among war damaged buildings. Also incorporated in the design is a new complex for the Afghan National Museum.

The overall good news is the country has potential to quickly come out of poverty and become an economically stable country. This is due to many reports showing that the country has possession of mass amounts of high demand natural resources and minerals. According to the US Geological Survey and the Afghan Ministry of Mines and Industry, Afghanistan may be possessing up to 36 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, 3.6 billion barrels of petroleum and up to 1,325 million barrels of natural gas liquids. This could mark the turning point in Afghanistan’s reconstruction efforts. Energy exports could generate the revenue that Afghan officials need to modernize the country’s infrastructure and expand economic opportunities for the beleaguered and fractious population.<ref name="Eurasianet">Afghanistan’s Energy Future and its Potential Implications, Eurasianet.org.</ref> Other reports suggest that the country has huge amounts of gold, copper, coal, iron ore and other rich minerals.<ref name="AfghanMinerals"/><ref name="Pajhwok"/>

Afghanistan is now a member of SAARC and ECO regional organizations, as well as the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

Modèle:Seealso

Demographics

Main article: Demography of Afghanistan

Modèle:See The population of Afghanistan is divided into a wide variety of ethnic groups. Because a systematic census has not been held in the country in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are not available.<ref>BBC News - Afghan poll's ethnic battleground - October 6 , 2004</ref> Therefore most figures are approximations only.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Afghanistan

Modèle:Columns

Ethnic groups

Image:Ethnic groups of afghanistan-provinces.jpg

Ethnic groups of Afghanistan (percentages are from Encyclopædia Iranica and CIA World Factbook<ref name="CIA">CIA World Factbook</ref>) Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Spaces Modèle:Smaller Modèle:Legend Modèle:Legend Modèle:Spaces Modèle:Smaller

An approximate distribution of ethnic groups according to the CIA World Factbook<ref name="CIA">CIA World Factbook</ref> is as following:

Pashtun: 42%
Tajik: 27%
Hazara: 9%
Uzbek: 9%
Aimak: 4%
Turkmen: 3%
Baloch: 2%
Other: 4%

Based on official census numbers from the 1960s to the 1980s, as well as information found in mainly scholarly sources, the Encyclopædia Iranica<ref name="Iranica2">L. Dupree, "Afghānistān: (iv.) ethnocgraphy", in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition 2006, (LINK)</ref> gives the following list:

36.4% Pashtun
33.6% Tajik, Farsiwan, and Qezelbash
8.0% Hazara
8.0% Uzbek
3.2% Aimak
1.6% Baloch
9.2% other

Religions

Main article: Religion in Afghanistan

Image:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg

Blue Mosque in Mazari Sharif.

Religiously, Afghans are over 99% Muslims: approximately 74–89% Sunni and 9–25% Shi'a<ref name="BritannicaPDF"/><ref name="CIA" /><ref>Goring, R. (ed): "Larousse Dictionary of Beliefs & Religions" (Larousse: 1994), pg. 581–58, Table: "Population Distribution of Major Beliefs", ISBN 0-7523-0000-8, Note: "... Figures have been compiled from the most accurate recent available information and are in most cases correct to the nearest 1% ..."</ref> (estimates vary). Up until the mid-1980s, there were about 30,000 to 150,000 Hindus and Sikhs living in different cities, mostly in Jalalabad, Kabul, and Kandahar.<ref>Hinduism Today: Hindus Abandon Afghanistan</ref><ref>BBC South Asia: Sikhs struggle in Afghanistan</ref>

There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan (see Bukharan Jews) who fled the country after the 1979 Soviet invasion, and only one individual, Zablon Simintov, remains today.<ref>Washingtonpost.com - Afghan Jew Becomes Country's One and Only - N.C. Aizenman</ref>

Largest cities

Modèle:Seealso The only city in Afghanistan with over one million residents is its capital, Kabul. The other major cities in the country are, in order of population size, Kandahar, Herat, Mazari Sharif, Jalalabad, Ghazni and Kunduz.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Afghanistan

Image:Afghan girls in traditional clothes.jpg

Afghanistani girls, wearing their traditional clothes, sing at a celebration of International Women's Day in 2002.

Afghans display pride in their religion, country, ancestry, and above all, their independence. Like other highlanders, Afghans are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, for their high regard for personal honor, for their clan loyalty and for their readiness to carry and use arms to settle disputes.<ref name="Heathcote">Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839–1919", Sellmount Staplehurst</ref> As clan warfare and internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreign invaders to hold the region.

Afghanistan has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of the country's historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars. The two famous statues of Buddha in the Bamyan Province were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. Other famous sites include the very cities of Kandahar, Herat, Ghazni and Balkh. The Minaret of Jam, in the Hari Rud valley, is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The cloak worn by Muhammad is stored inside the famous Khalka Sharifa in Kandahar City.

Buzkashi is a national sport in Afghanistan. It is similar to polo and played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold off a goat carcass. Afghan hounds (a type of running dog) also originated from Afghanistan.

Although literacy levels are very low, classic Persian poetry plays a very important role in the Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in Iran and Afghanistan, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Persian culture has, and continues to, exert a great influence over Afghan culture. Private poetry competition events known as “musha’era” are quite common even among ordinary people. Almost every home owns one or more poetry collection of some sort, even if it is not read often.

The eastern dialects of the Persian language are popularly known as "Dari". The name itself derives from "Pārsī-e Darbārī", meaning Persian of the royal courts. The ancient term Darī – one of the original names of the Persian language – was revived in the Afghan constitution of 1964, and was intended "to signify that Afghans consider their country the cradle of the language. Hence, the name Fārsī, the language of Fārs, is strictly avoided. With this point in mind, we can consider the development of Dari or Persian literature in the political entity known as Afghanistan."<ref>"Modern literature of Afghanistan" by R. Farhādī, Encyclopaedia Iranica, xii, Online Edition.</ref>

Many of the famous Persian poets of the tenth to fifteenth centuries stem from Khorasan where is now known as Afghanistan. They were mostly also scholars in many disciplines like languages, natural sciences, medicine, religion and astronomy.

Mawlānā Rumi, who was born and educated in Balkh in the thirteenth century and moved to Konya in modern-day Turkey
Rabi'a Balkhi (the first poetess in the History of Persian Poetry, tenth century, native of Balkh)
Daqiqi Balkhi (tenth century, native of Balkh)
Farrukhi Sistani (tenth century, the Ghaznavids royal poet)
Unsuri Balkhi (a tenth/eleventh century poet, native of Balkh)
Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (eleventh century, from Herat)
Nasir Khusraw (eleventh century, from Qubadyan near Balkh)
Anvari (twelfth century, lived and died in Balkh)
Sanā'ī Ghaznawi (twelfth century, native of Ghazni)
Jāmī of Herāt (fifteenth century, native of Herat in western Afghanistan), and his nephew Abdullah Hatifi Herawi, a well-known poet
Alī Sher Navā'ī (fifteenth century, Herat).

Most of these individuals were of Persian (Tājīk) ethnicity who still form the second-largest ethnic group in Afghanistan. Also, some of the contemporary Persian language poets and writers, who are relatively well-known in Persian-speaking world, include Ustad Betab, Qari Abdullah, Khalilullah Khalili,<ref>Afghanmagazine.com - Ustad Khalilullah Khalili - 1997</ref> Sufi Ghulam Nabi Ashqari,<ref>Afghanmagazine.com - Kharaabat - by Yousef Kohzad - 2000</ref> Sarwar Joya, Qahar Asey, Parwin Pazwak and others. In 2003, Khaled Hosseini published The Kiterunner which though fiction, captured much of the history, politics and culture experienced in Afghanistan from the 1930s to present day.

In addition to poets and authors, numerous Persian scientists have had their origins lie in where it's now called Afghanistan. Most notable was Avicenna (Abu Alī Hussein ibn Sīnā) whose father hailed from Balkh. Ibn Sīnā, who travelled to Isfahan later in life to establish a medical school there, is known by some scholars as "the father of modern medicine". George Sarton called ibn Sīnā "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." His most famous works are The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, also known as the Qanun. Ibn Sīnā's story even found way to the contemporary English literature through Noah Gordon's The Physician, now published in many languages. Moreover, according to Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Farabi, a well-known Philosopher and Scientist, was from the Faryab Province of Afghanistan, .

Before the Taliban gained power, the city of Kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the Nauroz-celebration. Kabul in the middle part of the twentieth century has been likened to Vienna during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

The tribal system, which orders the life of most people outside metropolitan areas, is potent in political terms. Men feel a fierce loyalty to their own tribe, such that, if called upon, they would assemble in arms under the tribal chiefs and local clan leaders (Khans). In theory, under Islamic law, every believer has an obligation to bear arms at the ruler's call (Ulul-Amr).

Heathcote considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle.<ref name="Heathcote">Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839–1919", Sellmount Staplehurst</ref>

Infrastructure

Communications and technology

Main article: Communications in Afghanistan

Afghanistan has rapidly advanced in communication technology, and now has wireless companies, Internet, radio stations and television channels. Afghan telecommunication companies, Afghan Telecom, Afghan Wireless, Roshan, Areeba and Etisalat which is expected to be launched in 2007, have boasted a rapid increase in cellular phone usage.Modèle:Facts In 2006, the Afghan Ministry of Communications has signed a US$64.5 million agreement with ZTE Corporation for the establishment of a countrywide fibre optic cable network. This will improve telephone, internet, television and radio broadcast services throughout the country.<ref>Ministry signs contract with Chinese company, Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>

Transportation

Main article: Transportation in Afghanistan

Afghanistan's commercial airline, Ariana Afghan Airlines, now serves flights to Frankfurt, Dubai and Istanbul to and from Kabul and Herat. Automobiles have recently become more widely available, with Toyota, Land Rover, BMW and Hyundai dealerships all over Kabul, and imports of second-hand vehicles from the UAE on display in Kandahar.Modèle:Facts

Education

Main article: Education in Afghanistan

In early 2003 it was estimated that 30% of Afghanistan's 7,000 schools had been very seriously damaged during more than two decades of civil war. Only half of the schools were reported to have clean water, while fewer than an estimated 40% had adequate sanitation.

As regards the poverty and violence of their surroundings, a study in 2002 by the Save the Children Fund said Afghan children were resilient and courageous. The study credited the strong institutions of family and community.

As of 2006 more than four million male and female students are enrolled in schools throughout the country. Primary education is totally free and available for all boys and girls.

Literacy of the entire population is estimated (as of 1999) at 36%, the male literacy rate is 51% and female literacy is 21%. Up to now there are 9,500 schools in the country.

Another aspect of education that is rapidly changing in Afghanistan is the face of higher education. Following the fall of the Taliban, Kabul University was reopened to both male and female students. In 2006, the American University of Afghanistan also opened its doors, with the aim of providing a world-class, English-language, co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan. The university accepts students from Afghanistan and the neighboring countries. Construction work will soon start at the new site selected for University of Balkh in Mazari Sharif. The new building for the university, including the building for the Engineering Department, would be constructed at 600 acres (2.4 km²) of land at the cost of 250 million US dollars.<ref>Pakistan grants $10m for Balkh University, Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>

Bibliography

Modèle:Columns

References and footnotes

External links

Modèle:Externallinks Modèle:Wikisource1911Enc Modèle:Sisterlinks

Official government sites

General information

Culture and news

Pajhwok Afghan News
Islamic Republic Of Afghanistan Afghan cultural issues
Afghanistan Cultural Profile - Afghanistan national cultural portal
KabulPress.org
Afghan Online Press
News, Information, Pictures from Afghanistan
RAWA News
Afghanistan Online
Bakhtar News Agency (Official Afghan Agency)
General Afghan Information and Entertainment Portal
Afghan History and Entertainment Portal

Other

Modèle:Template group Modèle:Template group Modèle:Countries of the Indosphere

Modèle:Link FA af:Afghanistan als:Afghanistan ar:أفغانستان an:Afganistán frp:Afganistan ast:Afganistán az:Əfqanıstan bn:আফগানিস্তান zh-min-nan:Afghanistan be:Афганістан be-x-old:Аўганістан bo:ཨ་ཧྤུན་ཧན bs:Afganistan br:Afghanistan bg:Афганистан ca:Afganistan cv:Афганистан ceb:Afghanistan cs:Afghánistán cy:Afghanistan da:Afghanistan pdc:Afganischtaan de:Afghanistan dv:އަފްޣާނިސްތާން dz:ཨཕ་ག་ནིསི་ཏཱན་ et:Afganistan el:Αφγανιστάν es:Afganistán eo:Afganio eu:Afganistan fa:افغانستان fr:Afghanistan fy:Afganistan fur:Afghanistan ga:An Afganastáin gd:Afganastan gl:Afganistán - افغانستان gu:અફઘાનિસ્તાન ko:아프가니스탄 hy:Աֆղանստան hi:अफ़्ग़ानिस्तान hsb:Afghanistan hr:Afganistan io:Afganistan ilo:Afganistan bpy:আফগানিস্তান id:Afganistan ia:Afghanistan os:Афгъанистан is:Afganistan it:Afghanistan he:אפגניסטן jv:Afganistan pam:Afghanistan kn:ಅಫ್ಘಾನಿಸ್ತಾನ ka:ავღანეთი kk:Ауғанстан kw:Afghanistan sw:Afghanistan ht:Afganistan ku:Efxanistan la:Afgania lv:Afganistāna lb:Afghanistan lij:Afghanistan lt:Afganistanas li:Afganistan hu:Afganisztán mk:Авганистан ml:അഫ്ഗാനിസ്ഥാന്‍ mr:अफगाणिस्तान ms:Afghanistan mn:Афганистан nah:Afganistān na:Afganistan nl:Afghanistan ja:アフガニスタン no:Afghanistan nn:Afghanistan nov:Afganistan oc:Afganistan ug:ئافغانىستان uz:Afg`oniston pag:Afghanistan ps:افغانستان km:អាហ្វហ្គានីស្តង់ pms:Afgànistan nds:Afghanistan pl:Afganistan pt:Afeganistão ro:Afganistan qu:Afgansuyu ru:Афганистан se:Afghanistan sa:अफगानस्थान sq:Afganistani scn:Afganistàn simple:Afghanistan sk:Afganistan sl:Afganistan sr:Авганистан sh:Afganistan su:Apganistan fi:Afganistan sv:Afghanistan tl:Afghanistan ta:ஆப்கானிஸ்தான் te:ఆఫ్ఘనిస్తాన్ tet:Afeganistaun th:ประเทศอัฟกานิสถาน vi:Afghanistan tg:Афғонистон tr:Afganistan tk:Owganystan udm:Афганистан uk:Афганістан ur:افغانستان vec:Afganistan vo:Lafganistän war:Afganistan wo:Afganistaan yi:אפגאניסטאן zh-yue:阿富汗 cbk-zam:Afghanistan diq:Efğanıstan bat-smg:Afganėstans

zh:阿富汗

Badakhshan <li> Badghis <li> Baghlan <li> Balkh <li> Bamyan <li> Daykundi <li> Farah <li> Faryab <li> Ghazni <li> Ghor <li> Helmand <li> Herat <li> Jowzjan <li> Kabul <li> Kandahar <li> Kapisa <li> Khost </ol></td>

<li> Konar <li> Kunduz <li> Laghman <li> Lowgar <li> Nangarhar <li> Nimruz <li> Nurestan <li> Oruzgan <li> Paktia <li> Paktika <li> Panjshir <li> Parvan <li> Samangan <li> Sare Pol <li> Takhar <li> Wardak <li> Zabol

Récupérée de « http://herveleblouch.free.fr/vev/index.php/Afghanistan »

Afghanistan

Un article de Vev.

Version du 24 décembre 2007 à 20:57

Sommaire

Etymology

Origin of the word "Afghan"

Meaning and origin of the name "Afghanistan"

Geography

History

Islamic conquest

Hotaki dynasty

Durrani Empire

European influence

Soviet invasion and civil war

2001-present war in Afghanistan

Government and politics

Military and law enforcement

Administrative divisions

Economy

Demographics

Languages

Ethnic groups

Religions

Largest cities

Culture

Infrastructure

Communications and technology

Transportation

Education

See also

Bibliography

References and footnotes

External links

Views

Outils personnels

sites

Navigation

Rechercher

Boîte à outils

-{{Infobox Pays|
+{{protected|small=yes}}
-nom_local=د افغانستان اسلامي دولت<br />دولت اسلامی افغانستان<br />(Di Afganistan Islami Dawlat<br />Dowlat-e Eslami-Ye-Afghanistan)<br />République islamique d'Afghanistan |
+{{Infobox Country
-nom_français=Afghanistan |
+|native_name              = <big>جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان </big><br/><small>''Jamhūrī-ye Islāmī-ye Afġānistān''</small>
-de=de l' |
+|conventional_long_name   = Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
-image_drapeau=Flag of Afghanistan.svg |
+|common_name              = Afghanistan
-lien_drapeau=Drapeau de l'Afghanistan |
+|image_flag               = Flag of Afghanistan.svg
-image_blason=Coat of arms of Afghanistan.svg |
+|image_coat               = Coat of arms of Afghanistan.svg
-lien_blason=Armoiries de l'Afghanistan |
+|symbol_type              = Emblem
-image_carte=LocationAfghanistan.svg |
+|image_map                = LocationAfghanistan.svg
-devise=Allah est grand. Il n'y a pas d'autre dieu qu'Allah et Mohammed est son prophète. |
+|national_motto           =
-langues_officielles= [[Pachto]], [[Persan]] ([[Dari]])|
+|national_anthem          = ''[[Milli Tharana]]''
-capitale=[[Kaboul]] |
+|official_languages       = [[Persian language|Persian]] ([[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]]), [[Pashto]]
-coordonnées_capitale=34°30' N, 69° 10' E |
+|demonym = Afghan<ref>The terms Afghani and Afghanistani are also encountered. afghani. Dictionary.com. [[The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language]], Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghani (accessed: November 13, 2007). afghanistani. Dictionary.com. [[WordNet|WordNet® 3.0]]. [[Princeton University]]. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistani (accessed: November 13, 2007).</ref>
-lien_villes=Villes d'Afghanistan |
+|capital                  = [[Kabul]]
-titre_plus_grande_ville=Plus grande ville |
+|latd=34 |latm=31 |latNS=N |longd=69 |longm=08 |longEW=E
-plus_grande_ville=[[Kaboul]] |
+|largest_city             = capital
-type_gouvernement=[[République islamique]] |
+|government_type          = [[Islamic republic]]
-titres_dirigeants=[[Présidents d'Afghanistan|Président]] |
+|leader_title1            = [[President of Afghanistan|President]]
-noms_dirigeants=[[Hamid Karzai]] |
+|leader_title2            = [[Vice President]]
-superficie_rang=41 |
+|leader_name1             = [[Hamid Karzai]]
-superficie_totale=647 500 |
+|leader_name2             = [[Ahmad Zia Massoud]]
-pourcentage_eau=Négligeable |
+|leader_title3            = [[Vice President]]
-population_rang=38 |
+|leader_name3             = [[Karim Khalili]]
-population_totale=31 056 997 <ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/af.html CIA, The world factbook]</ref> |
+|area_rank                = 41st
-population_année=2006 |
+|area_magnitude           = 1_E11
-densité=43 |
+|area_km2                     = 647500
-type_indépendance=Date |
+|area_sq_mi                  = 251772 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
-pays_indépendance =Du [[Royaume-Uni]] (indépendance diplomatique, seul le ministère des affaires étrangères afghan était sous le contrôle britannique) |
+|percent_water            = 0
-date_indépendance=[[19 août]] [[1919]] |
+|population_estimate      = 31,889,923
-pays frontaliers={{CHN}}{{-}}{{IRI}}{{-}}{{PAK}}{{-}}{{TKM}}{{-}}{{UZB}}{{-}}{{TJK}}|
+|population_estimate_year = 2007
-gentilé=Afghan, afghane |
+|population_estimate_rank = 37th
-pib=20 milliards de $ |
+|population_census        = 13,051,358
-pib_rang= |
+|population_census_year   = 1979
-pib_date=2003 |
+|population_density_km2       = 46
-pib_habitant=700 $ | IDH=0,229
+|population_density_sq_mi    = 119 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
-| IDH_année=1993
+|population_density_rank  = 150th
-| IDH_catégorie=
+|GDP_PPP_year             = 2006
-| IDH_rang=
+|GDP_PPP                  = $32.4 billion
-| monnaie=[[Afghani]] |
+|GDP_PPP_rank             = 92nd
-code_monnaie=AFN |
+|GDP_PPP_per_capita       = $1,490
-fuseau_horaire=+4:30 |
+|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank  = 158th
-hymne_national=[[Sououd-e-Melli|Milli Tharana]] |
+|HDI_year                 = 1993
-domaine_internet=.af |
+|HDI                      = 0.229
-indicatif_téléphonique=+93 |
+|HDI_rank                 = unranked
-notes= |
+|HDI_category             = <font color="gray">n/a</font>
+|FSI                      = 102.3 {{increase}} 2.5
+|FSI_year                 = 2007
+|FSI_rank                 = 8th
+|FSI_category             = <font color="#FF0000">Alert</font>
+|sovereignty_type         = [[Treaty of Rawalpindi|Independence]]
+|sovereignty_note         = from the [[United Kingdom]]
+|established_event1       = Declared
+|established_event2       = Recognized
+|established_date1        = [[August 8]], [[1919]]
+|established_date2        = [[August 19]], 1919
+|currency                 = [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]]
+|currency_code            = AFN
+|country_code             = AFG
+|time_zone                =
+|utc_offset               = +4:30
+|time_zone_DST            =
+|utc_offset_DST           = +4:30
+|cctld                    = [[.af]]
+|calling_code             = 93
+|footnote1                =
 }}
-L''''Afghanistan''' ([[Pachto]]/[[Persan]] : '''Afğānistān افغانستان''') est un [[pays]] d'[[Asie centrale]], entouré du [[Turkménistan]], de l'[[Ouzbékistan]], du [[Tadjikistan]], de la [[République populaire de Chine|Chine]], du [[Pakistan]] et de l'[[Iran]]. Depuis l'[[Guerre d'Afghanistan (1979)|invasion soviétique en 1979]] et des années de guerre civile, l'Afghanistan connaît un appauvrissement considérable, mais aujourd'hui les choses ont beaucoup évolué et le pays se modernise très rapidement, malgré l'instabilité des régions sous influence des [[Taliban]]s.
+'''Afġānistān''', officially the '''[[Islamic republic|Islamic Republic]] of Afghanistan'''  ([[Persian language|Persian]]: '''جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان''', [[Pashto language|Pashto]]:''' د افغانستان اسلامى جمهوريت ''' ), is a [[landlocked]] country that is located in the heart of [[Asia]]. It is variously designated as located geographically within [[Central Asia]]<ref>[http://web.utah.edu/meca/2007Conf/2007%20MECA-%20Final%20Program.pdf], [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/reo/2006/eng/01/mreo0506.pdf]</ref>, the [[Middle East]]<ref>[http://menic.utexas.edu/Countries_and_Regions/Afghanistan UT - MENIC], [http://www3.nationalgeographic.com/places/countries/country_afghanistan.html ''Afghanistan Profile''], National Geographic (accessed [[20 January]] [[2006]]), [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html#Geo ''Afghanistan''], CIA Factbook (accessed [[20 January]] 2006), [http://www.mideasti.org/countries/countries.php?name=afghanistan ''Afghanistan''], Middle East Institute (accessed [[20 January]] 2006).</ref>, or [[South Asia]]<ref name="SouthAsia">[http://www.ias.berkeley.edu/southasia/aboutus.html University of California], [http://www.southasiaoutreach.wisc.edu/countries.htm], [http://www.southasia.upenn.edu/home/views/languages.html University of Pennsylvania],  [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,menuPK:158937~pagePK:158889~piPK:146815~theSitePK:223547,00.html World Bank]; [http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html US maps]; [http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&y=2007&m=August&x=20070829160347saikceinawz0.2609064] ; [http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html University of Washington] [http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/sac/ Syracuse University]</ref>. It has religious, ethno-linguistic, and geographic links with most of its neighbors. It is bordered by [[Pakistan]] in the south and east,<ref name="India">Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to be a part of India including the portion bordering [[Afghanistan]]. A ceasefire sponsored by the [[United Nations]] in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and [[Pakistan]]i held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory.</ref> [[Iran]] in the west, [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Tajikistan]] in the north, and [[People's Republic of China|China]] in the far northeast. The name Afghanistan means the "''Land of [[Pashtun people|Afghans]]''."
-Entre la chute des Talibans durant la [[Guerre d'Afghanistan (2001)|guerre d’Afghanistan de 2001]], et la [[Loya Jirga]] de [[2003]], l'Afghanistan a été appelé par l'Occident du nom ''État islamique transitoire d'Afghanistan''. Depuis l'élaboration de sa nouvelle [[Constitution d'Afghanistan|constitution]], le pays est maintenant officiellement nommé la '''[[République islamique]] d'Afghanistan'''.
+Afghanistan is a culturally mixed nation, a crossroads between the [[Eastern world|East]] and the [[Western world|West]], and has been an ancient focal point of [[silk road|trade]] and [[Human migration|migration]]. It has an important [[geostrategy|geostrategical]] location, connecting [[South Asia]], Central Asia and [[Southwest Asia]]. During its long history, the land has seen various invaders and conquerors, while on the other hand, local entities invaded the surrounding vast regions to form [[empire]]s to themselves. [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] created a large empire in the middle of the eighteenth century, with its capital at [[Kandahar]].<ref>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9354776/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani ''Ahmad Shah Durrani''], Britannica Concise.</ref> Subsequently, most of its territories were ceded to former neighboring countries. In the 19th century, Afghanistan became a [[buffer state]] in "[[The Great Game]]" played between the [[British Indian Empire]] and [[Russian Empire]]. On [[August 19]], 1919, following the [[European influence in Afghanistan#Third Anglo-Afghan War and Independence|third Anglo-Afghan war]], the country regained full independence from the United Kingdom over its [[foreign affairs]].
-Très attachés à leur indépendance, les Afghans menèrent de très nombreuses batailles contre les envahisseurs qu'ils soient indiens, perses, russes, soviétiques ou britanniques. Ces derniers ont notamment subi les défaites parmi les plus marquantes de leur histoire en Afghanistan pendant la [[bataille de Gandamak]]<ref>{{en}} [http://britishbattles.com/first-afghan-war/kabul-gandamak.htm
+Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan has suffered continuous and brutal [[Afghan Civil War|civil war]], which included foreign interventions in the form of the 1979 [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] and the 2001 [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|US invasion of Afghanistan]], in which the ruling [[Taliban]] government was toppled.
-« The Battle of Kabul and the retreat to Gandamak »]</ref> où le 44{{e}} régiment britannique fut totalement anéanti et la [[bataille de Maiwand]]<ref>{{en}} [http://britishbattles.com/second-afghan-war/maiwand.htm « The Battle of Maiwand »]</ref> où le 66{{e}} régiment n'a compté que quelques survivants, notamment un chien nommé [[Bobbie]], décoré par la reine [[Victoria]]. L'Afghanistan fut d'ailleurs une des rares puissances asiatiques avec le [[Japon]] et la [[Thaïlande]] à avoir mis en déroute les puissances coloniales europénnes.
-== Étymologie et origine du mot « Afghan »==
+In December 2001, the [[United Nations Security Council]] authorized the creation of an [[International Security Assistance Force|International Security Assistance Force (ISAF)]]. This force, composed of [[NATO]] troops, has been involved in assisting the government of President Hamid Karzai in establishing authority across the nation. In 2005, the [[United States]] and Afghanistan signed a strategic partnership agreement committing both nations to a long-term relationship. In the meantime, about 40 billion [[US dollar]]s have also been provided by the international community for the [[Reconstruction of Afghanistan|reconstruction]] of the country. Despite this, as of November 2007, the British Government was still advising against all travel to most of Afghanistan due to "ongoing military activity and lawlessness".
-Le nom '''Afghanistan''' dérive de l'autre nom donné aux [[Pachtounes]] : ''[[Afghan]]''. Le suffixe du nom tient son origine du mot [[dari]] ''stān'' (''pays''). Aghanistan signifie donc : « pays des [[Afghan]]s ».
-En outre on a longtemps pensé que c'est [[Al Biruni]], le célèbre [[mathématicien]], [[encyclopédiste]] et [[philosophe]] [[persan]], qui fut le premier à avoir parlé des Afghans dans son ''Histoire de l'Inde'' (1030). En réalité le terme « Afghan » avait déjà été cité en 982 par [[Houdoud al Alam]], géographe persan et [[Ibn al-Athir]] qui avait cité le nom 10 ans avant le premier.
+==Etymology==
+{{main|Origins of the name Afghan|List of country name etymologies}}
+The name ''Af<u>gh</u>ānistān'' translates to the ''"[[-stan|Land of Afghans]]"''. Its modern usage derives from the word ''[[Origins of the name Afghan|Afghan]]''.
-Mais de nombreuses légendes entourent le nom de ce peuple mystérieux dont le passé est relativement mal connu. Ainsi [[Khwadja Niamat-Ullah]], historien et géographe indien à la cour de l'Empereur [[moghol]] [[Jahangir]], écrivit dans son ''Histoire des Afghans'', que le peuple afghan serait issu d'un officier du Roi [[Salomon]] nommé Afghâna. Les descendants de cet officier aurait été chassés d'[[Israël]] par [[Nabuchodonosor]] et se seraient installés dans l'actuel Afghanistan notamment dans la région des [[monts Sulaymân]]. Mais cette légende n'est pas confirmée, dans l'Ancien Testament on ne retrouve nulle part le nom de ce fameux officier de Salomon.
+====Origin of the word "Afghan"====
+There are different theories about the origin of the word Afghan, its age, and its meaning. Some believe that "Afghan" is formed from ''"Apagân"''.<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica, Afghanistan History, Online Edition [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-129450/Afghanistan LINK]</ref> The [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]] began using the term ''Afghan'' as a name for themselves from at least the Islamic period and onwards. According to W. K. Frazier Tyler, M. C. Gillet and several other scholars, ''"The word Afghan first appears in history in the [[Hudud ul-'alam min al-mashriq ila al-maghrib|Hudud-al-Alam]] in 982 AD."''
-Par ailleurs d'autres explications existent, aussi originales les unes que les l'autres. Ainsi selon une théorie le mot [[afghan]] aurait des origines albanaises (du grec Al-Ab, on aurait fait "Agvan" puis "Avgan"). Autre idée, cette fois celle de Vera Marigo, qui se rapporte aux "épigones" - les successeurs d'[[Alexandre le Grand]] : "Epigonoï" aurait évolué en "Aphigonoï" (Afigani). Bien qu'intéressantes et ingénieuses ces explications n'expliquent pas les mille ans qui séparent la fin des royaumes grecs de la toute première apparition du mot "[[Afghan]]".<ref>'''Guide de l'Afghanistan''', Bernard Dupaigne, Gilles Rossignol ''edition : la manufacture''.</ref>
+In this regard the ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'' states:<ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f5/v1f5a037.html "Afghan"] (with ref. to "Afghanistan: iv. Ethnography") by Ch. M. Kieffer, ''[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]'' Online Edition 2006.</ref>
+{{quote|From a more limited, ethnological point of view, "Af<u>gh</u>ān" is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan (and the non-Paštō-speaking ethnic groups generally) designate the Paštūn. The equation [of] ''Afghan'' [and] ''Paštūn'' has been propagated all the more, both in and beyond Afghanistan, because the Paštūn tribal confederation is by far the most important in the country, numerically and politically.}}
-== Histoire ==
+It further explains:
-{{Article détaillé|Histoire de l'Afghanistan}}
+{{quote|The term "Af<u>gh</u>ān" has probably designated the Paštūn since ancient times. Under the form ''Avagānā'', this ethnic group is first mentioned by the Indian astronomer Varāha Mihira in the beginning of the [[600|6th century CE]] in his ''Brihat-samhita''.}}
-L'Afghanistan, souvent appelé le carrefour de l'[[Asie centrale]], a eu une histoire très mouvementée. À travers les âges, la région aujourd'hui connue sous le nom ''Afghanistan'' a été occupée par beaucoup de forces incluant l'[[Perse|Empire perse]], [[Alexandre le Grand]] et [[Genghis Khan]].
+====Meaning and origin of the name "Afghanistan"====
+The last part of the name, ''-stān'', is an [[Indo-Iranian language|Indo-Iranian]] suffix for "place", prominent in many languages of the region.
-=== Avant 1747 ===
+The term "''Afghanistan''," meaning the "''Land of Afghans''," was mentioned by the [[16th century|sixteenth century]] [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Emperor]] Babur in his [[Baburnama|memoirs]], referring to the territories south of [[Kabul]] that were inhabited by Pashtuns (called ''"Afghans"'' by Babur).<ref>[http://persian.packhum.org/persian//pf?file=03501051&ct=92 "Transactions of the year 908"] by Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur in Bāburnāma, translated by John Leyden, Oxford University Press: 1921.</ref>
-Convoité par de nombreuses puissances tant régionales que mondiales l'Afghanistan se trouve toujours sur le chemin de l'[[Inde]] lorsque les [[Perse]]s, [[Grec]]s, [[Moghol]]s, ou [[Turc]]s rêvent d'en prendre le contrôle. Inversement l'Afghanistan s'est toujours trouvé sur le chemin des empereurs indiens comme [[Ashoka]], dans leur volonté d'expansion vers l'ouest.
-Parallèlement l'Afghanistan a également été le centre de nombreux pouvoirs forts d'origine grecque sous l'Empire bactrien, [[bouddhiste]] sous l'Empire [[Kouchan]], [[moghol]] sous le règne de [[Bâbur]] ou encore [[turc]] sous le règne des empereurs comme [[Mahmûd de Ghaznî]], ou [[Muhammad Ghûrî]].
+Until the 19th century the name was only used for the traditional lands of the Pashtuns, while the kingdom as a whole was known as the ''[[Caboul|Kingdom of Kabul]]'', as mentioned by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] statesman and historian [[Mountstuart Elphinstone]].<ref>[[Mountstuart Elphinstone|Elphinstone, M.]], ''"Account of the Kingdom of Cabul and its Dependencies in Persia and India"'', [[London]] 1815; published by Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown</ref> Other parts of the country were at certain periods recognized as independent kingdoms, such as the ''Kingdom of Balkh'' in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.<ref>E. Bowen, ''"A New & Accurate Map of Persia"'' in ''A Complete System Of Geography'', Printed for W. Innys, R. Ware [etc.], [[London]] 1747</ref>
-Son emplacement géographique sur les routes commerciales fait de ce pays un enjeu stratégique majeur encore aujourd'hui.
+With the expansion and centralization of the country, Afghan authorities adopted and extended the name "Afghanistan" to the entire kingdom, after its English translation, "Afghanland", had already appeared in various treaties between [[British Raj]] and [[Qajar dynasty|Qajarid Persia]], referring to the lands that were subject to the [[Pashtun]] [[Barakzai Dynasty]] of Kabul.<ref>E. Huntington, ''"The Anglo-Russian Agreement as to Tibet, Afghanistan, and Persia"'', Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Vol. 39, No. 11 (1907)</ref> "Afghanistan" as the name for the entire kingdom was mentioned in 1857 by [[Friedrich Engels|Frederick Engels]].<ref name="MECW">[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm MECW Volume 18, p. 40; The New American Cyclopaedia - Vol. I, 1858]</ref> It became the official name when the country was recognized by the world community in 1919, after regaining its full independence from the British,<ref>M. Ali, ''"Afghanistan: The War of Independence, 1919"'', Kabul [s.n.], 1960</ref> and was confirmed as such in the nation's 1923 constitution.<ref>[http://www.afghan-web.com/history/const/const1923.html Afghanistan's Constitution of 1923] under ''[[Amanullah Khan|King Amanullah Khan]]'' (English translation).</ref>
-Cet emplacement stratégique a profité à de nombreux royaumes qui se sont succédées sur ce territoire. Ainsi après l'effondrement des royaumes grecs et un brève contrôle exercé par l'Empereur [[Ashoka]], le peuple Yue-Tche, avec à leur tête le chef [[Kudjula Kadphisês]] s'empare du pays et se taille un gigantesque Empire qui sera nommé l'Empire [[Kouchan]]. Ce premier Empire [[bouddhiste]] sera très belliqueux et expressionniste, une attitude qui poussa l'Empereur chinois [[Tsin Che Houang-Nou]] à bâtir la muraille de Chine au sud de son Empire. Son Territoire s'étendait de l'[[Iran]] actuel jusqu'en [[Inde]], probablement plus loin que [[Delhi]] et de la [[Mer d'Oman]] jusqu'à la [[Mer d'Aral]]. Pour beaucoup d'historiens c'est grâce à cet Empire [[Kouchan]] et plus précisément à son Empereur [[Kanishka Ier]] que le bouddhisme a pu s'étendre jusqu'en [[Chine]], en [[Corée]] et au [[Japon]] par les voies commerciales et non par des conquêtes militaires.
+==Geography==
+{{main|Geography of Afghanistan}}
+[[Image:Afghan topo en.jpg|thumb|300px|Topography]]
+[[Image:Northwestern Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A valley in north western Afghanistan]]
+Afghanistan is a land-locked and [[mountain]]ous country in central Asia, with plains in the north and southwest. The highest point is [[Nowshak]], at 7,485&nbsp;m (24,557&nbsp;ft) above sea level. Large parts of the country are dry, and fresh water supplies are limited. The [[Endorheic basin|endorheic]] [[Sistan Basin]] is one of the driest regions in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf|title=History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin 1976 - 2005|publisher=|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> Afghanistan has a continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. The country is frequently subject to minor [[earthquake]]s, mainly in the northeast of [[Hindu Kush]] mountain areas. Some 125 villages were damaged and 4000 people killed by the May 30, 1998 earthquake.
-Le rôle de l'Islam est également fondamental dans l'histoire de ce pays. Les premières armées arabes ont pu profiter de la faiblesse de l'[[Empire Perse Sassanide]], en pleine effondrement, et s'emparer ainsi de la presque totalité des possessions de celui-ci. Mais force est de constater que l'islamisation d'une bonne partie de l'Afghanistan a pris plus de 200 ans. La résistance légendaire des [[KaboulShah]]s, encore bouddhistes, a considérablement retardé l'islamisation. Contrairement à ce que beaucoup avancent, l'islamisation de l'Afghanistan s'est finalement faite non par les armes mais avec la conversion volontaire des chefs et de la classe dirigeante des derniers bastions du bouddhisme. A noter que la région de [[Nourestan]] a été la dernière région du pays à se convertir à l'Islam et ce très tardivement, en effet, les nouristanis sont musulmans que depuis le {{XIXe siècle}}, soit plus de 1200 ans après les toutes premières conquêtes arabes.
+Afghanistan is currently facing a serious environmental crisis. In the last two decades, Afghanistan has lost over 70% of its [[forests]] throughout the country. "More than 80% of [Afghanistan's] land could be subject to [[soil erosion]]… soil fertility is declining, [[Soil salination|salinisation]] is on the increase, [[groundwater|water tables]] have dramatically fallen, [[deforestation|de-vegetation]] is extensive and soil erosion by water and wind is widespread," said a recent report - called Sustainable Land Management 2007 - by Afghanistan's Ministry of Agriculture and Food (MoAF).<ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=73481 Environmental crisis looms as conflict goes on]</ref>
-[[Image:Sasaram.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Le mausolée de [[Sher Shah Suri]] à Sasaram, en [[Inde]]]]
+At 249,984&nbsp;[[Square mile|sq&nbsp;mi]] (647,500&nbsp;[[Square kilometre|km²]]), Afghanistan is the world's 41st-largest country (after [[Myanmar]]). Comparatively, it is slightly smaller than the U.S. state of [[Texas]].
-Après l'installation définitive de l'Islam en Afghanistan, celui-ci ne s'est plus étendu grâce aux arabes mais surtout grâce aux turcs comme l'Empereur [[Mahmûd de Ghaznî]] et [[Muhammad Ghûrî]]. En ce qui concerne l'islamisation de l'Inde, le chef militaire afghan [[Sher Shah Suri]] y a joué un très grand rôle où il fut suzerain juste et ingénieux à [[Sasaram]]. Ce dernier a notamment été à l'origine de la route ''Grand Trunk Road'' connu par les européens sous le nom de la Grande marche. Cette route relie le [[Bengale]] à [[Delhi]], s'étend jusqu'au [[Pakistan]] et finit en Afghanistan passant par le [[Khyber Pass]]. Le tombeau du suzerain, appelé aussi le deuxième [[Taj Mahal]] en [[Inde]], figure sur la liste du [[patrimoine mondial de l'humanité]] de l'[[UNESCO]].
+The country's natural resources include [[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]], [[zinc]] and [[iron ore]] in southeastern areas; precious and [[semi-precious stones]] such as [[lapis]], [[emerald]] and [[azure]] in the north-east; and potentially significant [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] reserves in the north. The country also has [[uranium]], [[coal]], [[chromite]], [[talc]], [[barites]], [[sulfur]], [[lead]], and [[salt]].<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html ''Afghanistan''], CIA World Factbook.</ref><ref name="AfghanMinerals">[http://www.bgs.ac.uk/AfghanMinerals/docs/Gold_A4.pdf#search='gold%20and%20copper%20discovered%20in%20afghanistan' ''Gold and copper discovered in Afghanistan'']</ref><ref>http://www.wise-uranium.org/uissr05.html#NEWDISC</ref><ref>[http://www.pajhwak.com/viewstory.asp?id=29308 ''16 detained for smuggling chromites''], Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref> However, these significant mineral and energy resources remain largely untapped due to the effects of the Soviet invasion and the subsequent civil war. Plans are underway to begin extracting them in the near future.<ref name="Eurasianet">[http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav090306.shtml ''Afghanistan’s Energy Future and its Potential Implications''], Eurasianet.org.</ref><ref name="Pajhwok">[http://www.pajhwok.com/viewstory.asp?lng=eng&id=27383 ''Govt plans to lease out Ainak copper mine''], Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>
-=== 1747-1919 ===
+==History==
-Règne d'[[Ahmad Shâh]] Durrani
+{{main|History of Afghanistan}}
+Though the modern state of Afghanistan was founded or created in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani,<ref>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9354776/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani ''Ahmad Shah Durrani''], Britannica Concise.</ref> the land has an ancient history and various timelines of different civilizations. Excavation of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree, the [[University of Pennsylvania]], the [[Smithsonian Institute]] and others suggests that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the area were among the earliest in the world.<ref>[http://www.zharov.com/dupree/chapter03.html Sites in Perspective], chapter 3 of Nancy Hatch Dupree, ''An Historical Guide To Afghanistan''.</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/text_761569370___42/Afghanistan.html ''Afghanistan''], Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 (specifically John Ford Shroder, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
+Regents Professor of Geography and Geology, University of Nebraska. Editor, Himalaya to the Sea: Geology, Geomorphology, and the Quaternary and other books).</ref>
-[[image:Afgempdur.jpg|right|thumb|364px|Limites de l'Empire Afghan en 1747]]
+Afghanistan is a country at a unique nexus point where numerous [[Indo-European people|Indo-European]] civilizations have interacted and often fought, and was an important site of early historical activity. Through the ages, the region has been home to various people, among them the [[Aryan]] ([[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]]) tribes, such as the [[Kambojas]], [[Bactrians]], [[Persians]], etc. It also has been conquered by a host of people, including the [[Median Empire|Median]] and [[Persian Empire]]s, [[Alexander the Great]], [[Kushans]], [[Hepthalites]], [[Arab]]s, [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], and [[Mongols]]. In recent times, unsuccessful invasions from the [[United Kingdom|British]], [[Soviet Union|Soviets]], and most recently by the [[United States|Americans]] and their allies have taken place. On the other hand, native entities have invaded surrounding regions in [[Iranian plateau]] and [[Indian subcontinent]] to form empires of their own.
-L'Afghanistan en tant qu'Etat ne commence à exister, très précisément, qu'à partir de 1747. Cette date correspond à la dislocation de l'[[Empire perse]] [[Afsharides]], après la mort de l'Empereur Nader Shah de Perse. Très rapidement l'Afghanistan s'impose comme une puissance militaire de premier ordre dirigé par des généraux hors paire comme Ahmad Khan Abdali. Ce chef militaire, devenu Empereur [[Ahmad Shâh]] Durrani, cette même année, après son élection par l'Assemblée Populaire [[Loya Jirga]], mène de nombreuses compagnes militaires et étend l'Empire afghan au confins de l'[[Empire perse]] et indien où il met définitivement fin au règne des [[moghol]]. Les afghans remportent des grandes victoires en Inde pendant, par exemple, la [[troisième bataille de Pânipat]].
+[[Image:Persian empire 490bc Bactria.gif|right|thumb|250px|The region that is now Afghanistan was for much of its history part of various Persian dynasties, such as the [[Persian Empire|Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire]] (559–330&nbsp;BCE)]]
+Between 2000 and 1200 BC, [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]-speaking [[Aryans]] are thought to have been in the region of northern Afghanistan. It is uncertain as to whether the [[Aryans]] themselves originated in Afghanistan and migrated south towards [[India]] and west towards [[Persia]] and then Europe, setting up a nation that during the rule of [[Medes]] and [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid Persians]] became known as Aryānām Xšaθra or [[Airyanem Vaejah|Airyānem Vāejah]]. Other original homelands of the [[Aryans]] have been proposed as Anatolia, South Central Asia, Iran, or Northern India, with the directions of the historical migration varying accordingly.  Later, during the rule of [[Ashkanian]], [[Sasanian]] and after, it was called Erānshahr ({{PerB|<big>ايرانشهر </big>}} - ''Īrānšahr'') meaning "Dominion of the Aryans."
-Pour beaucoup d'indiens parmi les quelques raisons qui ont permis aux britanniques de s'installer durablement sur le sous-continent indien figurent 2 événements majeurs. D'une part la [[troisième bataille de Pânipat]] pendant laquelle les forces militaires [[sikh]]s et indiennes furent anéantis par les afghans et qui auraient pu résister aux forces armées britanniques. D'autre part l'inaction des souverains afghans face aux innombrables appels des Maharajahs indiens de les aider face aux britanniques. Ceci s'explique par 2 choses. D'abord les souverains afghans, bien que d'excellents guerriers, ne furent jamais de fins politiciens, ils n'ont pas mesurés l'importance de la pénétration des armées britanniques. D'autre part les afghans ont dû faire face aussi à l'avancée des armées russes au Nord pays et ont dû céder d'importantes villes comme [[Samarcande]] et [[Boukhara]].
+It has been speculated that [[Zoroastrianism]] might have originated in what is now Afghanistan between 1800 to 800 BC, as [[Zoroaster]] lived and died in [[Balkh]].<ref>''The history of Afghanistan'', [http://www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html Ghandara.com website]</ref><ref>''Afghanistan: Achaemenid dynasty rule'', Ancient Classical History,  [http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_afghanachaemenid.htm about.com]</ref>. Ancient [[Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian languages]], such as [[Avestan]], may have been spoken in this region around the time of the rise of Zoroastrianism. By the middle of the sixth century BC, the [[Persian Empire]] of the Achaemenids supplanted the [[Medes|Median Empire]] and incorporated what was known as [[Persia]] to the Greeks within its boundaries; and by 330 BC, Alexander the Great invaded Afghanistan and conquered the surrounding regions. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] successor states of the [[Seleucids]] and [[Greco-Bactrians]] controlled the area, while the [[Maurya]]s from India annexed the southeast for a time and introduced [[Buddhism]] to the region until the area returned to the Bactrian rule.
+[[Image:GBA8.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Buddhas of Bamyan]] were among the largest [[Buddha (general)|Buddha]] statues in the world, dating back to the [[1st century|first century AD.]]]]
-Ahmad Shah Durrani règna sur l'Afghanistan jusqu'en 1772, l'année de sa mort, laissant son Empire à son fils Timour. On présume qu'il mort d'un cancer de la face, mais personne ne le sait vraiment. Le fondateur de l'Afghanistan porte aussi le titre de "Bâbâe melat" qui, en [[pachtou]], signifie Père de la Nation, il est seul avec [[Mohammed Zaher Chah]], le dernier roi d'Afghanistan, a avoir ce titre.
+During the first century [[Anno Domini|AD]], the [[Kushan]]s created a vast empire centered in modern Afghanistan and were patrons of Buddhist culture. The Kushans were defeated by the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]] in the third century. Although various rulers calling themselves Kushans (and generally known as ''Kushano-Sasanians'') continued to rule at least parts of the region, they were probably more or less subject to the Sassanids.<ref>Dani, A. H. and B. A. Litvinsky. "The Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom." In: ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750''. Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 103–118. ISBN 92-3-103211-9</ref> The late Kushans were followed by the [[Kidarite]] Huns<ref>Zeimal, E. V. "The Kidarite Kingdom in Central Asia." In: ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750''. Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996, Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 119–133. ISBN 92-3-103211-9</ref> who, in turn, were replaced by the short-lived but powerful [[Hephthalites]], as rulers of the region in the first half of the fifth century.<ref>Litvinsky, B. A. "The Hephthalite Empire." In: ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750''. Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996, Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 135–162. ISBN 92-3-103211-9</ref> The Hephthalites were defeated by the Sasanian king [[Khosrau I]] in AD 557, who re-established Sasanian power in Persia. However, the successors of Kushans and Hepthalites established a small dynasty in [[Kabulistan]] called [[Kushano-Hephthalites]] or [[Kushano-Hephthalite|Kabul-Shahan]]/[[Shahi]] and were later defeated by the [[Arab|Muslim]] armies.
-Timour Shâh
+===Islamic conquest===
+{{Main|Islamic conquest of Afghanistan}}
-Le règne du fils d'Ahmad Shâh Durrani, Timour Shâh Durrani a commencé en 1772, il resta roi jusqu'en 1793.
+In the [[Middle Ages]], up to the nineteenth century, the region was known as [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]].<ref>Ali Akbar Dehkhoda, ''[[Dehkhoda Dictionary]]'', p. 8457</ref><ref>Ghubar, Mir Ghulam Mohammad, ''Khorasan'', 1937 Kabul Printing House, Kabul)</ref><ref>[http://www.tajik-gateway.org/index.phtml?lang=en&id=1005 "Tajikistan Development Gateway"] from ''History of Afghanistan'' by the [http://www.developmentgateway.org/aboutus Development Gateway Foundation]</ref> Several important centers of Khorāsān are thus located in modern Afghanistan, such as Balkh, Herat, [[Ghazni]] and [[Kabul]]. It was during this period of time when [[Islam]] was introduced and spread in the area.
-Les dirigeants historiques furent issus de la tribu des [[Abdali]] de l'ethnie afghane, dont le nom fut changé en [[Durrani]] lors de l'accession du [[Shah Ahmad]]. Ils prolongèrent jusqu’à la dynastie [[Saddozay]] du clan [[Popalzay]] ou de la dynastie [[Mohammadzay]] du clan [[Barakzay]] de l'ethnie pachtoune. Les Mohammadzay donnèrent fréquemment les rois Saddozay ainsi que des conseillers suprêmes, qui servirent occasionnellement comme régents, identifiés avec l'épithète Mohammadzay.
+The region of Afghanistan became the center of various important empires, including that of the [[Samanid]]s (875–999), [[Ghaznavid Empire|Ghaznavids]] (977–1187), [[Seljukids]] (1037–1194), [[Ghurids]] (1149–1212), and [[Timurid Dynasty|Timurids]] (1370–1506). Among them, the periods of Ghaznavids<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036676/Ghaznavid-Dynasty "Ghaznavid Dynasty"], ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Online Edition.</ref> of Ghazni, and Timurids<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072546/Timurid-Dynasty "Timurid Dynasty"], ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Online Edition.</ref> of Herat are considered as some of the most brilliant eras of Afghanistan's history.
-Depuis [[1900]], onze dirigeants furent déposés :
+In 1219 it was overrun by the [[Mongols]] under [[Genghis Khan]], who devastated the land. Their rule continued with the [[Ilkhanate]]s, and was extended further following the [[invasion]] of [[Timur|Timur Lang]] ("Tamerlane"), a ruler from Central Asia. In 1504, [[Babur]], a descendant of both Timur Lang and Genghis Khan, established the [[Mughal Empire]] with its capital at [[Kabul]]. By the early 1700s, Afghanistan was controlled by several ruling groups: [[Uzbeks]] to the north, [[Safavids]] to the west and the remaining larger area by the Mughals or self-ruled by local Afghan tribes.
-* [[1919]] [[Habibullah Shah]] est assassiné le 20 février à Kalagosh pendant une partie de chasse, guerre d'indépendance contre l'Empire britannique.
-* [[1929]] abdication du roi [[Amanullah Shah]] qui s'exile en Inde puis en Europe, fuite devant une révolte populaire ;
-* [[1929]] [[Inayatullah Shah]] règne trois jours avant d'abdiquer (14 au 17 janvier 1929) ;
-* [[1929]] Amir Habibullah Ghazi ([[Bacha e Saqao]]), exécuté par son successeur qui restaura la dynastie [[Barakzay]]e ;
-* [[1933]] [[Mohammad Nadir Shah|Mohammed Nadir Chah]] assassiné;
-* [[1973]] [[Mohammed Zaher Chah]] fils du précédent, dépôt du roi, fuite en Italie, coup d'État, passage à une république ;
-* [[1978]] [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] assassiné à la suite d'un coup d'État;
-* [[1979]] [[Nour Mohammad Taraki]] & [[Babrak Karmal]] exilé;
-* [[1979]] [[Hafizullah Amin]] & Nour Mohammad Taraki, le premier tue le second ;
-* [[1979]] Hafizullah Amin tué par une fraction du PDPA à la suite d'un coup d'État soutenu par l'Union soviétique ;
-* [[1986]] [[Babrak Karmal]] remplacement en fin de mandat ;
-* [[1992]] [[Mohammed Nadjibullah]] renversement par la résistance afghane appuyée par les États-Unis d'Amérique.
-* [[1996]] Prise de Kaboul par les [[talibans]] soutenus par les Etats-Unis d'Amérique, et assassinat du président [[Mohammed Nadjibullah]] par les [[talibans]].
-* [[2001]] renversement du gouvernement islamique des [[talibans]] par les États-Unis d'Amérique et ses alliés de l'[[Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord|OTAN]].
+=== Hotaki dynasty ===
+{{Main|Hotaki dynasty}}
+In 1709, [[Mir Wais Hotak]], a local Afghan (''Pashtun'') from the [[Ghilzai]] clan, overthrew and killed [[Gurgin Khan]], the Safavid governor of [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]]. Mir Wais successfully defeated the Persians, who were attempting to convert the local population of Kandahar from [[Sunni]] to the [[Shia]] sect of [[Islam]]. Mir Wais held the region of Kandahar until his death in 1715 and was succeeded by his son [[Mir Mahmud Hotaki]]. In 1722, Mir Mahmud led an Afghan army to [[Isfahan]] (now in [[Iran]]), sacked the city and proclaimed himself [[Shah of Persia|King of Persia]]. However, the great majority still rejected the Afghan regime as usurping, and after the massacre of thousands of civilians in Isfahan by the Afghans &ndash; including more than three thousand religious scholars, nobles, and members of the Safavid family &ndash; the [[Hotaki|Hotaki dynasty]] was eventually removed from power by a new ruler, [[Nadir Shah]] of Persia.<ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f8/v2f8a024.html "Ašraf <u>Gh</u>ilzai"] by Prof. D. Balland, ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'' Online Edition 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-21394/Afghanistan "The Hotakis"] in "Afghanistan", ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''.</ref>
-La dernière période de stabilité en Afghanistan eut lieu entre [[1933]] et [[1973]], lorsque le pays était sous la direction du roi [[Mohammed Zaher Chah|Zaher Chah]]. Néanmoins, en [[1973]], le beau-frère de Zahir, [[Mohammed Daoud Khan|Sardar Mohammed Daoud]] entreprit une action non sanglante le 17 juillet 1973. Coup d'État de [[Mohammed Daoud Khan|Daoud]] qui, avec l'appui militaire soviétique, renverse son cousin Zaher. Ce dernier abdique en août et s'installe en Italie.
+===Durrani Empire===
+{{Main|Durrani Empire}}
+In 1738 Nadir Shah and his army, which included four thousand Pashtuns of the [[Abdali]] clan,<ref name="DurraniDynasty">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-21396/Afghanistan "The Durranti dynasty"] in "Afghanistan", ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''.</ref> conquered the region of Kandahar; in the same year he occupied Ghazni, Kabul and [[Lahore]]. On June 19, 1747, Nadir Shah was assassinated, possibly planned by his nephew [[Adil Shah|Ali Qoli]]. In the same year, one of Nadir's military commanders and personal bodyguard, [[Ahmad Shah Abdali]], a Pashtun from the Abdali clan, called for a [[loya jirga]] following Nadir's death. The Afghans gathered at [[Kandahar]] and chose Ahmad Shah as their King. Since then, he is often regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan.<ref name="CIA"/><ref name="Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9004137/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani?source=YNFAF "Ahmad Shah Durrani"], ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''.</ref><ref>[http://www.zharov.com/dupree/chapter16.html The South], chapter 16 of Nancy Hatch Dupree, ''An Historical Guide To Afghanistan''.</ref> After the inauguration, he changed his title or clans' name to ''"Durrani"'', which derives from the Persian word ''Durr'', meaning ''"Pearl"''.<ref name="DurraniDynasty"/>
-=== 1919-1978 ===
+By 1751 Ahmad Shah Durrani and his Afghan army conquered the entire present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, Khorasan and Kohistan provinces of Iran, along with [[Delhi]] in India.<ref name="MECW"/> In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired to his home in [[Maruf]], Kandahar, where he died peacefully. He was succeeded by his son, [[Timur Shah Durrani]], who transferred the capital from Kandahar to Kabul. Timur died in 1793 and was finally succeeded by his son [[Zaman Shah Durrani]].
-=== 1978-1992 : la 1{{re}} guerre d'Afghanistan ===
+===European influence===
-{{Article détaillé|Guerre d'Afghanistan (1979)}}
+{{Main|European influence in Afghanistan}}
-Le coup d'État du [[Parti Démocratique Populaire d'Afghanistan]] (PDPA) le 27 avril 1978 renverse le gouvernement [[Mohammed Daoud Khan|Daoud]] et assassine de nombreux membres de sa famille. [[Muhammad Taraki]] (1917-1979), leader du ''Khalq'' (fraction radicale et majoritairement pachtoune du PDPA) devient président de la nouvelle République démocratique d'Afghanistan. Socialiste, elle est pro-soviétique.
+During the nineteenth century, following the [[Anglo-Afghan wars]] (fought 1839–42, 1878–80, and lastly in 1919) and the ascension of the [[Barakzai|Barakzai dynasty]], Afghanistan saw much of its territory and autonomy ceded to the [[United Kingdom]]. The UK exercised a great deal of influence, and it was not until King Amanullah Khan acceded to the throne in 1919 that Afghanistan re-gained complete independence over its foreign affairs (see "[[The Great Game]]"). During the period of British intervention in Afghanistan, ethnic Pashtun territories were divided by the [[Durand Line]]. This would lead to strained relations between Afghanistan and British India &ndash; and later the new state of Pakistan &ndash; over what came to be known as the [[Pashtunistan]] debate. The longest period of stability in Afghanistan was between 1933 and 1973, when the country was under the rule of [[Mohammed Zahir Shah|King Zahir Shah]].
-Une partie des Afghans entrent en résistance contre le pouvoir central soutenu massivement par l'[[Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques|Union soviétique]] et fomentent un nouveau coup d'État le 28 décembre 1979, ce fut le début de la [[Guerre d'Afghanistan (1979)|1{{re}} guerre d'Afghanistan]]. [[Babrak Karmal]] devient président. L'[[Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques|Union soviétique]] soutient le nouveau régime et intervient massivement à partir de janvier 1980 pour reprendre le contrôle des zones rebelles (sud-est du pays principalement). Le gouvernement communiste afghan se heurte à de nombreux obstacles : les campagnes traditionalistes ne suivent pas le communisme considéré comme antireligieux, la classe ouvrière afghane est peu nombreuse et principalement localisée autour de [[Kaboul]]. Surtout, l'Occident et les pays musulmans (Arabie saoudite, Iran, Pakistan) apportent un soutien matériel et financier à la résistance (islamistes).
+However, in 1973 Zahir Shah's brother-in-law, [[Sardar Mohammed Daoud|Sardar Daoud Khan]], launched a bloodless coup. Daoud Khan and his entire family were murdered in 1978, when the [[communist]] [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] launched a coup known as the [[Khalq|Great Saur Revolution]] and took over the government.
-Le 30 novembre 1986, [[Mohammed Nadjibullah]] devient président de l'Afghanistan à la place de [[Karmal]]. Les troupes gouvernementales doivent faire face à l'aide moindre de l'URSS d'année en année (pour cause de [[Perestroïka]]) et à une intensification des combats soutenus par le [[Pakistan]] voisin et ses [[moudjahiddin]] (« combattants d’islam ») ainsi que par les États occidentaux dont les [[États-Unis]] qui financèrent et armèrent des groupes islamistes pour lutter contre le pouvoir en place.
+===Soviet invasion and civil war===
+{{Main|Soviet war in Afghanistan|Civil war in Afghanistan}}
+As part of a [[Cold War]] strategy, in 1979 the [[United States government]] (under President [[Jimmy Carter]] and National Security Advisor [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]]) began to covertly fund and train anti-government [[Mujahideen]] forces through the Pakistani secret service known as [[Inter Services Intelligence]] (ISI). In order to bolster the local Communist forces, the Soviet Union&mdash;citing the 1978 Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighborliness that had been signed between the two countries&mdash;intervened on [[December 24]], [[1979]]. Over 100,000 Soviet troops took part in the invasion, who were backed by another 100,000 and plus pro-communist forces of Afghanistan. The Soviet occupation resulted in the killings of at least 600,000 to 2 million Afghan civilians. Over five million [[Afghan refugees|Afghans]] fled their country to Pakistan, Iran and other parts of the world. Faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties on both sides, the Soviets withdrew in 1989.
-L'[[Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques|Union soviétique]] décide unilatéralement de quitter le pays en février 1989, laissant à [[Nadjibullah]] le contrôle du pays.  Le régime tombe le 29 avril 1992 après la prise de Kaboul et la démission de Mohammed Nadjibullah le 16 avril.  Il est à noter que les troupes gouvernementales, fidèles à Mohammed Nadjibullah, ont résisté fièrement contre des troupes mieux armées et plus nombreuses qu'elles.
+The Soviet withdrawal from the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] was seen as an ideological victory in the US, which had backed the Mujahideen through three US presidential administrations in order to counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-rich [[Persian Gulf]].[[Image:Evstafiev-afghan-apc-passes-russian.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Soviet troops withdrawing from Afghanistan in 1988. Photo by [[Mikhail Evstafiev]]]]
-=== 1992-1996 : la guerre civile===
+Following the removal of the Soviet forces, the US and its allies lost interest in Afghanistan and did little to help rebuild the war-ravaged country or influence events there. The [[USSR]] continued to support President [[Najibullah]] (former head of the Afghan secret service, ''[[KHAD]]'') until 1992 when new Russian government refused to sell oil products to Najibullah regime.<ref name="Columbia:Afghanistan:History">[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html "Afghanistan: History"], ''Columbia Encyclopedia''.</ref>
-Le 9 avril 1992, [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]], futur chef de l'alliance du nord, entre dans [[Kaboul]] avec plusieurs milliers d'hommes et devient ministre de la défense en mai. Le 28 juin, [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]], islamiste modéré du [[Jamiat-e-Islami]], est nommé président intérimaire, puis élu chef du gouvernement en décembre. De 1992 à 1995, un gouvernement issu de la résistance afghane prend le pouvoir, mais il y a des dissidences internes. [[Massoud]] démissionne du gouvernement afin de permettre à [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]], un fondamentaliste appartenant à l'ethnie pachtoune, majoritaire dans le pays, de devenir 1er ministre. Mais les affrontements continuent dans Kaboul entre Talibans, forces du gouvernement (Mossoud) et moudjahdins (Hekmatyar, ...).
-À partir de 1994, les Talibans conquièrent peu à peu les différentes provinces du pays. De 1994 à 1996, soutenus par l'armée pakistanaise, ils conquièrent l'essentiel du pays (sauf le réduit tadjik au nord-est) et instaurent une dictature fondamentaliste. Des membres du ''Hezb-é-islami'' (parti de Hekmatyar) entrent au gouvernement du président Rabbiani tandis que Hekmatyar devient Premier ministre. Durant l'été 1996, [[Oussama Ben Laden]], fuyant l'[[Arabie saoudite]] et après un séjour de deux ans au [[Soudan]], retourne en Afghanistan. Il diffuse une déclaration de [[djihad]] contre les Américains.
+The result of the fighting was that the vast majority of the elites and intellectuals had escaped to take refuge abroad, a dangerous leadership vacuum thereby coming into existence. Fighting continued among the victorious Mujahideen factions, eventually giving rise to a state of warlordism. The most serious fighting during this period occurred in 1994, when over 10,000 people were killed in Kabul alone. The chaos and corruption that dominated post-Soviet Afghanistan in turn spawned the rise of the [[Taliban]]. The Taliban developed as a politico-religious force, and eventually seized Kabul in 1996. By the end of 2000 the Taliban were able to capture 95% of the country, aside from the opposition ([[Afghan Northern Alliance]]) strongholds primarily found in the northeast corner of Badakhshan Province. The Taliban sought to impose a very strict interpretation of [[Islamic law]].
-Le 27 septembre 1996, les Talibans prennent Kaboul et s'emparent dès lors du pouvoir. Le [[Mollah Omar]], chef charismatique du mouvement et « Commandeur des Croyants », dirige le pays sans aucun titre politique ou constitutionnel. [[Mohammed Nadjibullah]] est sauvagement assassiné par les Talibans ainsi que son frère, pourtant sous la protection de l'[[Organisation des Nations unies|ONU]]. Un témoin raconta qu'alors que Kaboul était sur le point de changer de main, les gardes afghans en charge de la protection des locaux de l’ONU s’enfuirent. Dans une dernière tentative désespérée, Nadjibullah appela à l’aide les représentants de l’ONU à [[Islamabad]], en vain. Son sort était déjà scellé, les Talibans ayant constitué un commando de cinq hommes chargés de l’éliminer. Selon [[Ahmed Rashid]], le mollah Abdoul Razzaq se trouvait à la tête du groupe qui s’empara de Nadjibullah entre une heure et deux heures du matin, quelques heures avant l’entrée des Talibans dans la capitale{{référence nécessaire}}.
+During the Taliban's seven-year rule, much of the population experienced restrictions on their freedom and violations of their human rights. Women were banned from jobs, girls forbidden to attend schools or universities. Those who resisted were punished instantly. Communists were systematically eradicated and thieves were punished by amputating one of their hands or feet. Meanwhile, the Taliban managed to nearly eradicate the majority of the opium production by 2001.<ref>Afghanistan, Opium and the Taliban [http://opioids.com/afghanistan/index.html]</ref>
-Dans son livre ''L’Ombre des Talibans'', [[Ahmed Rashid]] raconte les derniers instants de Nadjibullah : « Les [[Taliban]]s entrèrent dans la chambre de Nadjibullah, le passèrent à tabac ainsi que son frère, et jetèrent les deux hommes inconscients à l’arrière d’une camionnette qui se rendit au palais présidentiel plongé dans l’obscurité. Là, ils castrèrent Nadjibullah et traînèrent son corps derrière une Jeep, avant de l’achever d’une balle. Son frère subit les mêmes tortures et fut étranglé. Les Talibans pendirent les deux cadavres à un poteau de signalisation en béton, juste devant le palais, à quelques pâtés de maisons des locaux des [[Organisation des Nations unies|Nations unies]]. » « À l’aube, des habitants curieux vinrent regarder les deux corps gonflés et mutilés pendus par du fil de fer. Ils avaient des cigarettes entre les doigts et les poches débordantes de billets de banque afghans – pour mieux transmettre le message des Talibans sur leur débauche et leur corruption. Les deux autres compagnons de Nadjibullah s’étaient échappés. Rattrapés alors qu’ils tentaient de fuir la ville, ils furent aussi torturés et pendus », poursuit Ahmed Rashid.
+===2001-present war in Afghanistan===
+{{Main|War in Afghanistan (2001-present)}}
+Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] the United States launched [[Operation Enduring Freedom]], a military campaign to destroy the al-Qaeda terrorist training camps inside Afghanistan. The US military also threatened to overthrow the Taliban government for refusing to hand over [[Osama bin Laden]] and several al-Qaida members. The US made a common cause with the former Afghan Mujahideen to achieve its ends. In December of the same year, leaders of the former Afghan mujahideen and diaspora met in [[Germany]], and agreed on a [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)|plan]] for the formulation of a new democratic government that resulted in the inauguration of [[Hamid Karzai]], an ethnic Pashtun from the southern city of Kandahar, as Chairman of the [[Afghan Interim Authority]].
-Ainsi commença le règne des [[Taliban]]s.
+After a nationwide ''[[Loya Jirga]]'' in 2002, Karzai was chosen by the representatives to assume the title as Interim President of Afghanistan. The country convened a Constitutional Loya Jirga (Council of Elders) in 2003 and a new [[Constitution of Afghanistan|constitution]] was ratified in January 2004. Following an election in October 2004, Hamid Karzai won and became the President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Legislative elections were held in September 2005. The National Assembly &ndash; the first freely elected legislature in Afghanistan since 1973 &ndash; sat in December 2005, and was noteworthy for the inclusion of women as voters, candidates, and elected members.
-=== 1997-2006 : les Talibans et l'intervention de l'OTAN ===
-En [[1997]], les [[Taliban]]s – « étudiants » en [[théologie]] – encadrés par des groupes armés étrangers qui tiennent beaucoup à leur religion prirent le contrôle du pays (sauf une petite région au nord-est). Ils restaurèrent une paix relative au travers de la mise en application d'une loi islamique sévère qui restreignit un grand nombre de libertés dans un effort pour réaliser leurs idéaux, à savoir « le plus pur État islamique du monde », fondé sur une stricte application de la [[charia]], émanant de l'[[Deobandi|école déobandi]].
-En particulier, ils se firent connaître du monde entier en [[2001]] pour avoir détruit des statues de [[Bouddha]] pré-islamiques de [[Bouddhas de Bâmiyân|Bâmiyân]] ({{-s mini-|VI|e}} - {{-s-|IV|e}}), inscrites au patrimoine mondial de l'humanité par l'[[Organisation des Nations unies pour l'éducation, la science et la culture|UNESCO]]. Le [[Pakistan]], leur plus fidèle allié, dénonça alors leur politique.
+[[Image:US soldiers stuck in sand in southern Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|200px|left|U.S. soldiers stuck in sand in southern Afghanistan.]]
+As the country continues to rebuild and recover, it is still struggling against poverty, poor [[infrastructure]], large concentration of [[land mine]]s and other unexploded ordnance on earth, as well as a huge illegal [[opium poppy|poppy]] cultivation and [[opium]] trade. Afghanistan also remains subject to occasionally violent political jockeying. The country continues to grapple with the [[Taliban insurgency]] and the threat of attacks from a few remaining al Qaeda.
-Le 9 septembre 2001, [[Massoud]] est assassiné lors d'un attentat suicide.
+At the start of 2007 reports of the Taliban's increasing presence in Afghanistan led the US to consider longer tours of duty and even an increase in troop numbers. According to a report filed by Robert Burns of Associated Press on [[January 16]], [[2007]], "U.S. military officials cited new evidence that the Pakistani military, which has long-standing ties to the Taliban movement, has turned a blind eye to the incursions." Also, "The number of insurgent attacks is up 300 percent since September, 2006, when the Pakistani government put into effect a peace arrangement with tribal leaders in the north Waziristan area, along Afghanistan's eastern border, a U.S. military intelligence officer told reporters."
-En 2001, les États-Unis, suite aux [[attentats du 11 septembre 2001|attentats du 11 septembre]], déclenchèrent une nouvelle [[guerre d'Afghanistan (2001)]] et, avec l'aide de l'Alliance du nord, renversèrent en quelques mois le régime taliban. La situation à la mi-2002 semblait stable, même si l'insécurité régnait toujours à la fois dans des régions hors du contrôle du nouveau gouvernement (qui a pris la place des Talibans) et également à cause des attentats dans les zones sous le contrôle des armées américaines, occidentales ou afghane. Notamment, le 5 septembre 2002 alors qu'il voyageait dans la région de Kandahar (dans le sud de l'Afghanistan), le président [[Hamid Karzaï]] a été victime d'une tentative d'assassinat, empêchée de justesse par ses gardes du corps (qui appartenaient aux forces spéciales américaines). Une balle avait alors frôlée son visage.
-Le 11 août 2003, l'[[Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord|OTAN]] prend le commandement de la [[Force internationale d'assistance et de sécurité]] (FIAS), à laquelle contribuent 37 pays<ref>« L'OTAN réunie à Bruxelles pour assurer le succès de sa mission en Afghanistan » dans ''Le Monde'', 8/06/2006 {{Lire en ligne|lien=http://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-3220,36-780745@51-778166,0.html}}</ref> ; elle s'emploie à étendre l'autorité du pouvoir central et à faciliter la reconstruction du pays.  Au 7 décembre 2004, une force internationale de près de 10 000 hommes était en Afghanistan, en plus des 20 000 soldats américains toujours présents. Cette coalition, décidée par l'[[Organisation des Nations unies]], a permis l'installation de structures pré-démocratiques.
-Le 26 mai 2004, cinq membres d'[[Organisation non gouvernementale|ONG]] sont tués dans une embuscade au nord-ouest de l’Afghanistan. Le 16 juillet 2004, une roquette tombe près d'un collège visité quelques minutes plus tard par le président Hamid Karzaï. Les Talibans revendiquent l'attentat. Le 29 août 2004 à Kaboul, un [[attentat]] à la voiture piégée fait au moins 12 morts et une trentaine de blessés. Les Talibans visaient l'entreprise de sécurité américaine ''Dyncorps'', qui s’occupe de la protection du président afghan [[Hamid Karzaï]].
+{{seealso|Timeline of the history of Afghanistan|Invasions of Afghanistan}}
-En [[2004]], 2 ans après l'intervention internationale, l'Afghanistan est redevenu le premier pays producteur mondial de [[pavot]] (''papaver somniferum'') dont le [[Latex (botanique)|latex]] est utilisé pour produire l'[[opium]] et l'[[héroïne]].
+==Government and politics==
+{{main|Politics of Afghanistan}}
+Politics in Afghanistan has historically consisted of power struggles, bloody [[coups]] and unstable transfers of power. With the exception of a [[military junta]], the country has been governed by nearly every system of government over the past century, including a [[monarchy]], [[republic]], [[theocracy]] and [[communist state]]. The constitution ratified by the [[2003 Loya jirga]] restructured the government as an [[Islamic republic]] consisting of three branches, ([[executive (government)|executive]], [[legislature]] and [[judiciary]]).
+[[Image:George W. Bush on a lunch break with Afghan politicians in Kabul.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Politicians of Afghanistan having lunch with [[President of Afghanistan|President]] Hamid Karzai and visiting [[U.S. President]] [[George W. Bush]] in Kabul on March 1, 2006.]]
-À partir de 2005, la situation s'aggrave. Les Talibans, en parallèle ou avec des volontaires étrangers, s'infiltrent dans certaines régions. En août 2006 l'OTAN lance une offensive (opération Méduse) à l'ouest de Kandahar, mais après la perte d'un avion de surveillance avec 14 militaires et plusieurs morts au sol notamment par ''feu ami'', son commandant réclame des renforts. Sur les dix premiers mois de 2006, la guérilla et les combats ont fait plus de 3000 morts en Afghanistan<ref>« Des dizaines de civils afghans tués dans un raid aérien de l'OTAN », dans ''[[Le Monde]]'' du 26/10/2006, {{Lire en ligne|lien=http://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-3216,36-828037@51-799721,0.html}}</ref>, alors que la production d'opium a augmenté de 60% pendant l'année<ref>« La France fait du bon travail en Afghanistan », entretien avec [[Hamid Karzai]], ''[[Paris-Match]]'' n°du 15/05/2007 p61</ref>.
+Afghanistan is currently led by President [[Hamid Karzai]], who was elected in October 2004. The current [[National Assembly of Afghanistan|parliament]] was elected in 2005. Among the elected officials were former mujahadeen, Taliban members, communists, [[reformists]], and [[Islamic fundamentalists]]. 28% of the delegates elected were women, 3 points more than the 25% minimum guaranteed under the constitution. This made Afghanistan, long known under the Taliban for its oppression of women, one of the leading countries in terms of female representation. Construction for a new parliament building began on August 29, 2005.
-Environ 61% de la population de Kaboul est sans logement.
+The [[Afghan Supreme Court|Supreme Court of Afghanistan]] is currently led by Chief Justice [[Abdul Salam Azimi]], a former university professor who had been legal advisor to the president.<ref>[http://www.e-ariana.com/ariana/eariana.nsf/allDocs/E78CB0C74F5E7142872571C90048D8BD?OpenDocument ] - New Supreme Court Could Mark Genuine Departure - [[August 13]], 2006</ref> The previous court, appointed during the time of the interim government, had been dominated by fundamentalist religious figures, including Chief Justice [[Faisal Ahmad Shinwari]]. The court had issued numerous questionable rulings, such as banning [[cable television]], seeking to ban a candidate in the 2004 presidential election and limiting the rights of women, as well as overstepping its constitutional authority by issuing rulings on subjects not yet brought before the court. The current court is seen as more moderate and led by more [[Technocracy (bureaucratic)|technocrat]]s than the previous court, although it has yet to issue any rulings.
-== Politique ==
+{{seealso|Constitution of Afghanistan}}
-{{Article détaillé|Politique de l'Afghanistan}}
-{{Article détaillé|Chronologie politique de l'Afghanistan}}
-Actuellement, l'Afghanistan est dirigé par le président [[Hamid Karzaï]], qui fut placé par l'administration Bush pour conduire un gouvernement intérimaire après la chute des Talibans. Il a gagné récemment une élection nationale. Son cabinet actuel comprend des membres de l'[[Alliance du Nord]], et un mélange issu d'autres groupes régionaux et ethniques formés à partir du gouvernement de transition par la [[Loya Jirga]]. L'ancien [[monarque]] [[Mohammed Zaher Chah]] est retourné dans le pays, mais ne fut pas réinvesti du pouvoir royal et son influence se limita seulement à des pouvoirs cérémonials, jusqu'à sa mort en [[2007]].
+===Military and law enforcement===
+{{main|Military of Afghanistan}}
+[[Image:AfghanistanTanks.jpg|thumb|200px|Soldiers assigned to the 1st Afghanistan National Army (ANA) Armored Battalion, stand in formation with their [[T-62]] Main Battle Tanks in 2003.]]
+Afghanistan currently has 60,000 police officers. It plans to recruit 20,000 more officers so that the total number can reach up to 80,000. They are being trained by and through the [[Afghanistan Police Program]]. Although the police officially are responsible for maintaining civil order, sometimes local and regional military commanders continue to exercise control in the hinterland. Police have been accused of improper treatment and detention of prisoners. In 2003 the mandate of the International Security Assistance Force, now under command of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) was extended and expanded beyond the [[Kabul]] area. However, in some areas unoccupied by those forces, local militias maintain control. In many areas, crimes have gone uninvestigated because of insufficient police and/or communications. Troops of the [[Afghan National Army]] have been sent to quell fighting in some regions lacking police protection.<ref name="LOCprof">Text used in this cited section originally came from: [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf Afghanistan (Feb 2005) profile] from the [[Library of Congress Country Studies]] project.</ref>
-Avec les [[Accords de Bonn (Afghanistan)|accords de Bonn]], la [[Commission Afghane de la Constitution]] fut établie pour consulter le peuple et formuler une constitution. Programmée pour la réaliser le {{1er septembre}} [[2003]], la commission a demandé un délai pour entreprendre plus de consultations. La rencontre d'une ''loya jirga'' (grand conseil) constitutionnelle fut tenue en décembre 2003 quand une nouvelle constitution fut adoptée, créant une forme présidentielle de gouvernement avec une législature bicamériste.
+==Administrative divisions==
+{{main|Provinces of Afghanistan|Districts of Afghanistan}}
+Afghanistan is administratively divided into thirty-four (34) [[province]]s (''welayats''), and for each province there is a capital. Each province is then divided into many provincial [[district]]s, and each district normally covers a city or several [[townships]].
-Les troupes et les agences de renseignements des États-Unis et nombres d'autres pays sont présents, certains pour garder la paix, d'autres assignés à chasser les [[Taliban]]s et [[al-Qaïda]]. Une force de maintien de la paix des [[Organisation des Nations unies|Nations Unies]], la [[Force internationale d'assistance et de sécurité]] (FIAS) est opérationnelle à Kaboul depuis [[décembre]] [[2001]]. L'[[Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord|OTAN]] a pris le contrôle de cette force le 11 août 2003. Une bonne partie du pays reste sous le contrôle des chefs de guerre.
+The [[Governor]] of the province is appointed by the [[Ministry of Interior]], and the [[Prefect]]s for the districts of the province will be appointed by the provincial Governor. The Governor is the representative of the central government of Afghanistan, and is responsible for all administrative and formal issues. The provincial [[Chief of Police]] is appointed by the Ministry of Interior, who works together with the Governor on law enforcement for all the cities or districts of that province.
-Le 27 mars 2003, le député afghan, ministre de la défense et le puissant chef de guerre, le général [[Abdul Rachid Dostom]] ont créé un bureau pour la [[Zone Nord de l'Afghanistan]] et ont nommé des officiels pour cela, défiant ainsi l'ordre du président par intérim [[Hamid Karzaï]] qui stipule qu'il n'y a pas de zone en Afghanistan.
+There is an exception in the capital city (Kabul) where the [[Mayor]] is selected by the [[President of Afghanistan]], and is completely independent from the [[prefecture]] of the [[Kabul Province]].
-L'[[Eurocorps]] est sous la responsabilité de l'OTAN qui dirige la FIAS à Kaboul depuis le {{Date|9|août|2004}}. Les pertes parmi ces troupes sont le plus souvent provoquées par des erreurs d’identification, des attentats à la voiture piégée ou des accidents routiers aggravés par l’absence de ceintures de sécurité.
+[[Image:Afghanistan provinces numbered.png|thumb|right|335px|Map showing the 34 [[provinces of Afghanistan]].]]
-Des élections nationales furent tenues le 9 octobre 2004. Plus de 10 millions d'Afghans furent enregistrés sur les listes électorales. Plus de 17 candidats s'opposant à [[Hamid Karzaï]] [[boycott]]èrent les élections, soupçonnant une fraude ; une commission indépendante mit en évidence la fraude, mais établit que cela n'affecta pas le résultat du scrutin. [[Hamid Karzaï]] gagna 55,4% du vote. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3977677.stm] Il fut investi de la présidence le [[7 décembre]]. Ce furent les premières élections nationales du pays depuis 1969, lorsque des élections parlementaires furent tenues pour la dernière fois.
+<table><td><ol>
+<li> [[Badakhshan Province|Badakhshan]]
+<li> [[Badghis Province|Badghis]]
+<li> [[Baghlan Province|Baghlan]]
+<li> [[Balkh Province|Balkh]]
+<li> [[Bamyan Province|Bamyan]]
+<li> [[Daykundi Province|Daykundi]]
+<li> [[Farah Province|Farah]]
+<li> [[Faryab Province|Faryab]]
+<li> [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]]
+<li> [[Ghor Province|Ghor]]
+<li> [[Helmand Province|Helmand]]
+<li> [[Herat Province|Herat]]
+<li> [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]]
+<li> [[Kabul Province|Kabul]]
+<li> [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]]
+<li> [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]]
+<li> [[Khost Province|Khost]]
+</ol></td><td><ol start=18>
+<li> [[Konar Province|Konar]]
+<li> [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]]
+<li> [[Laghman Province|Laghman]]
+<li> [[Lowgar Province|Lowgar]]
+<li> [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]]
+<li> [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]]
+<li> [[Nurestan Province|Nurestan]]
+<li> [[Oruzgan Province|Oruzgan]]
+<li> [[Paktia Province|Paktia]]
+<li> [[Paktika Province|Paktika]]
+<li> [[Panjshir Province|Panjshir]]
+<li> [[Parvan Province|Parvan]]
+<li> [[Samangan Province|Samangan]]
+<li> [[Sare Pol Province|Sare Pol]]
+<li> [[Takhar Province|Takhar]]
+<li> [[Vardak Province|Wardak]]
+<li> [[Zabol Province|Zabol]]
+</ol></td></table>
-''Voir aussi : [[Liste des chefs d'États d'Afghanistan]] ~ [[Liste des chefs de gouvernement d'Afghanistan]] ~ [[Liste des gouverneurs d'Afghanistan]] ~ [[Liste des émirs d'Afghanistan]]''
+==Economy==
+{{main|Economy of Afghanistan}}
+Afghanistan is an impoverished country, one of the world's poorest and least developed. Two-thirds of the population lives on fewer than 2 [[US Dollar|US]] dollars a day. The economy has suffered greatly from the recent political and military unrest since the 1979 Soviet invasion and subsequent conflicts, while severe drought added to the nation's difficulties in 1998–2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2005-03/2005-03-28-voa53.cfm|title=Poor Afghanistan|last=Morales|first=Victor|publisher=Voice of America|date=2005-03-28|accessdate=2006-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3582023.stm|last=North|first=Andrew|title=Why Afghanistan wants $27.6bn|publisher=BBC News|date=2004-03-30|accessdate=2006-09-10}}</ref>
-== Provinces ==
+The economically active population in 2002 was about 11 million (out of a total of an estimated 29 million). As of 2005, the official unemployment rate is at 40%.<ref name="factbook econ">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html#Econ</ref> The number of non-skilled young people is estimated at 3 million, which is likely to increase by some 300,000 per annum.<ref name=Fujimura>[http://www.adbi.org/research-policy-brief/2004/10/15/698.afghan.economy.after.election/ Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute]</ref>
-{{Article détaillé|Provinces d'Afghanistan}}
-L’Afghanistan est divisée en 34 provinces, ou ''velayat'' :
+[[Image:Kabul Trade Center.jpg|thumb|left|150px|A [[financial institution|business center]] in Kabul.]]
-{| align="center" style="text-align:left"
+However, Afghanistan has achieved respectable economic recovery and growth since 2002. The real value of ''non-drug'' GDP increased by 29% in 2002, 16% in 2003, 8% in 2004 and 14% in 2005.<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/EXTSARREGTOPMACECOGRO/0,,contentMDK:20592478~menuPK:579404~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:579398,00.html ''Macroeconomics & Economic Growth in South Asia''], The World Bank.</ref> As much as one-third of Afghanistan's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] comes from growing poppy and illicit drugs including [[opium]] and its two derivatives, [[morphine]] and [[heroin]], as well as [[hashish]] production.<ref name="CIA"/> Opium production in Afghanistan has soared to a new record in 2007, with an increase on last year of more than a third, the United Nations has said.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/08/28/2016978.htm Afghan opium production at record high]</ref> Some 3.3 million Afghans are now involved in producing opium.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/afghanistan/story/0,,2157313,00.html UN horrified by surge in opium trade in Helmand]</ref>
-|
-*<small>1</small> [[Badakhchan (Afghanistan)|Badakhchan]]
-*<small>2</small> [[Bâdghîs]]
-*<small>3</small> [[Baghlân (province)|Baghlân]]
-*<small>4</small> [[Balkh (province)|Balkh]]
-*<small>5</small> [[Bâmiyân (province)|Bâmiyân]]
-*<small>6</small> [[Deykandi]]
-*<small>7</small> [[Djôzdjân]]
-*<small>8</small> [[Farâh (province)|Farâh]]
-*<small>9</small> [[Fâryâb]]
-*<small>10</small> [[Ghazni (province)|Ghazni]]
-*<small>11</small> [[Ghôr]]
-*<small>12</small> [[Helmand]]
-*<small>13</small> [[Hérât (province)|Hérât]]
-*<small>14</small> [[Kaboul (province)|Kaboul]]
-*<small>15</small> [[Kandahâr (province)|Kandahâr]]
-*<small>16</small> [[Kâpîssâ]]
-*<small>17</small> [[Khôst (province)|Khôst]]
-|
-*<small>18</small> [[Kounar]]
-*<small>19</small> [[Kondôz (province)|Kondôz]]
-*<small>20</small> [[Laghmân]]
-*<small>21</small> [[Lôgar]]
-*<small>22</small> [[Nangarhâr]]
-*<small>23</small> [[Nimrôz]]
-*<small>24</small> [[Nourestân (province)|Nourestân]]
-*<small>25</small> [[Orozgân]]
-*<small>26</small> [[Paktîkâ]]
-*<small>27</small> [[Paktiyâ]]
-*<small>28</small> [[Pandjchir]]
-*<small>29</small> [[Parwân]]
-*<small>30</small> [[Samangân (province)|Samangân]]
-*<small>31</small> [[Sar-é Pol (province)|Sar-é Pol]]
-*<small>32</small> [[Takhâr]]
-*<small>33</small> [[Wardak]]
-*<small>34</small> [[Zâbol]]
-|
-[[Image:Afghanistan34Provinces-french numbering.png|thumb|300px|right|Carte des provinces de l’Afghanistan]]
-|}
-== Géographie ==
+In a recent article in the [[Washington Quarterly]], Peter van Ham and Jorrit Kamminga argue that the international community should establish a pilot project and investigate a licensing scheme to start the production of medicines such as morphine and codeine from poppy crops to help it escape the economic dependence on opium:<ref>http://www.twq.com/07winter/index.cfm?id=234</ref>
-[[Image:Carte de l'Afghanistan FR.png|thumb|250px|Carte de l'Afghanistan]]
-{{Article détaillé|Géographie de l'Afghanistan}}
-L'Afghanistan est un pays [[montagne]]ux avec des plaines au Nord et au Sud-Ouest. Le point le plus haut du pays, à 7 485 m au-dessus de la mer, est [[Nowshak]]. De grandes parties du pays sont arides, et l'eau fraîche est limitée. L'Afghanistan a un climat continental, avec des étés chauds et les hivers froids. Le pays est fréquemment sujet aux [[tremblement de terre|tremblements de terre]].
+:''There is no time to waste, as Afghanistan could well be slipping back to chaos and civil strife. Tackling the drug economy is central to easing Afghanistan's ills, and the only remaining alternative is the poppies for peace proposal, using medicinal poppy cultivation as bridge to sustainable development and lasting security in Afghanistan.''
-Les villes principales de l'Afghanistan sont sa capitale [[Kaboul]], [[Herat]], [[Jalalabad]], [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] et [[Kandahar]].
+On a positive note, international efforts to rebuild Afghanistan led to the formation of the Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) as a result of the December 2001 Bonn Agreement, and later addressed at the [[Tokyo]] Donors Conference for Afghan Reconstruction in 2002, where 4.5 billion US dollars were committed in a trust fund to be administered by the [[World Bank Group]]. Another 4 billion US dollars were committed in 2004 followed by 10.5 billion US dollars in early 2006 at the [[London Conference]].<ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=51510&SelectRegion=Asia&SelectCountry=AFGHANISTAN ''Government to have greater control over aid pledged in London''], irinnews.org.</ref> In early 2007, 11.6 billion dollars were committed to the country from the United States alone. Priority areas for reconstruction include the rebuilding of the educational system, health, and sanitation facilities, enhancement of administrative capacity, the development of the agricultural sector, and the rebuilding of road, energy, and telecommunication links.
-Fleuve : [[Hari Rud]]
+According to a 2004 report by the [[Asian Development Bank]], the present reconstruction effort is two-pronged: first it focuses on rebuilding critical physical infrastructure, and second, on building modern public sector institutions from the remnants of Soviet style planning to ones that promote market-led development.<ref name=Fujimura>[http://www.adbi.org/research-policy-brief/2004/10/15/698.afghan.economy.after.election/ Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute]</ref> In 2006, two US companies, Black & Veatch and the [[Louis Berger Group]], have won a US 1.4 billion dollar contract to rebuild roads, power lines and water supply systems of Afghanistan.<ref>[http://www.kansascity.com/mld/kansascity/15556499.htm?template=contentModules/printstory.jsp "Midday Business Report: Black & Veatch unit gains piece of Afghan contract"], ''The Kansas City Star''.</ref>
-''Voir aussi : la [[liste des villes de l'Afghanistan]] ~ [[Endroits d'Afghanistan]]''
+One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 4 million [[Afghan refugees|refugees]] from neighbouring countries and the West, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. What is also helping is the estimated US 2–3 billion dollars in international assistance every year, the partial recovery of the agricultural sector, and the reestablishment of market institutions. Private developments are also beginning to get underway. In 2006, a Dubai-based Afghan family opened a $25 million [[Coca Cola]] bottling plant in Afghanistan.<ref>[http://www.contracostatimes.com/mld/cctimes/business/15498245.htm "Coca-Cola opens plant in Afghanistan"], ''Contra Costa Times''.</ref>
-== Économie ==
+While the country's current account deficit is largely financed with the donor money, only a small portion &ndash; about 15% &ndash; is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the [[United Nations]] system and [[non-governmental organization]]s. The government had a central budget of only $350 million in 2003 and an estimated $550 million in 2004. The country's foreign exchange reserves totals about $500 million. Revenue is mostly generated through [[Afghanistan customs|customs]], as income and corporate tax bases are negligible.
-{{Article détaillé|Économie de l'Afghanistan}}
-=== Agriculture ===
-L'Afghanistan est avant tout un pays agricole. Avant l'invasion soviétique de 1989 qui a totalement déstructuré le pays, l'Afghanistan était connu pour sa production de fruits. Profitant d'un climat très avantageux et  ensoleillé au Sud et humide au Nord, l'Afghanistan produit une large gamme de fruits qui va du raisin aux pastèques en passant par les cerises, abricots et autres melons. A ce propos voici comment Alexandre Burnes, explorateur britannique, décrivait les fruits afghans : "Kaboul est particulièrement renommé pour ses fruits, qui sont exportés en grand nombre vers l'Inde. Ses vignobles sont si abondants que les grains sont donnés, pendant trois mois de l'année, au bétail. Il y en a de dix sortes différentes (aujourd'hui on dénombre 30 variétés de raisins en Afghanistan). Le vin de Kaboul a un parfum proche de celui du madère; et il n'est pas douteux qu'une meilleure qualité pourrait être produite dans ce pays avec un peu de soin. Les habitants de Kaboul font de multiples utilisations des raisins, beaucoup plus que dans d'autres pays. Ils utilisent le jus pour rôtir la viande; et, pendant les repas, ils se servent de poudres de fruits comme condiments. Ils sèchent également beaucoup de raisins, fabriquent beaucoup de sirop. Peshawar (aujourd'hui au Pakistan) est célèbre pour ses poires; Ghazni pour ses prunes, qui sont vendues en Inde sous le nom de "prunes de Boukhara"; Kandahar pour ses figues; et Kaboul pour ses mûres."<ref>Alexandre burnes, travels into Bokhara and a voyage to the Indus, 1831, Historical Reprints, Oxford, university press, t.I, p.155</ref> Les fruits afghans sont toujours autant prisés par les voisins qui absorbent la quasi totalité de la production. Mais force est de dire que l'agriculture afghane et les afghans sont en danger à cause de la production du [[pavot]]. Beaucoup trop de terres sont occupées par cette activité ce qui empêche la production de céréales, de fruits et légumes. Cela a pour conséquence une raréfaction de denrées alimentaires sur le marché intérieur et le paradoxe est que l'Afghanistan devient ainsi un importateur de fruits, de céréales et de légumes pour répondre aux besoins intérieures. En outre ces produits sont chers et les afghans en pâtissent du renchérissement de ces denrées.
+Inflation had been a major problem until 2002. However, the depreciation of the Afghani in 2002 after the introduction of the new notes (which replaced 1,000 old Afghani by 1 new Afghani) coupled with the relative stability compared to previous periods has helped prices to stabilize and even decrease between December 2002 and February 2003, reflecting the turnaround appreciation of the new Afghani currency. Since then, the index has indicated stability, with a moderate increase toward late 2003.<ref name="Fujimura">[http://www.adbi.org/research-policy-brief/2004/10/15/698.afghan.economy.after.election/ Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute]</ref>
-L'Afghanistan fut également longtemps producteur de [[vin]] jusqu'à l'arrivée des islamistes au pouvoir. Bien que plus ouvert le gouvernement actuel hésite à donner la permission de produire de l'alcool en Afghanistan. Avant 1992 l'Afghanistan produisait aussi des alcools forts comme la [[Vodka]].
+The Afghan government and international donors seem to remain committed to improving access to basic necessities, infrastructure development, education, housing and economic reform. The central government is also focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. The rebuilding of the financial sector seems to have been so far successful. Money can now be transferred in and out of the country via official banking channels. Since 2003, over fourteen new banks have opened in the country, including [[Standard Chartered Bank]], [[Afghanistan International Bank]], [[Kabul Bank]], [[Azizi Bank]], [[First Micro Finance Bank]], and others. A new law on private investment provides three to seven-year [[tax holiday]]s to eligible companies and a four-year exemption from exports [[tariff]]s and duties.
-Quant à ses céréales. La région de [[Badakhshan]], à elle seule, est considérée comme le grenier à blé du pays. Le pays est largement autosuffisant si les terres sont correctement employées aux cultures licites.
+[[Image:KABULCITYMAP.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The plan for Kabul's nine billion dollar future modern urban development project, the [[City of Light Development]].]]
+Some private investment projects, backed with national support, are also beginning to pick up steam in Afghanistan. An initial concept design called the City of Light Development, envisioned by Dr. [[Hisham N. Ashkouri]], Principal of [[ARCADD, Inc.]] for the development and the implementation of a privately based investment enterprise has been proposed for multi-function commercial, historic and cultural development within the limits of the Old City of Kabul along the Southern side of the Kabul River and along Jade Meywand Avenue,<ref>[http://www.cityoflight-kabul.com/p11.htm Kabul - City of Light Project]</ref> revitalizing some of the most commercial and historic districts in the City of Kabul, which contains numerous historic mosques and shrines as well as viable commercial activities among war damaged buildings. Also incorporated in the design is a new complex for the [[Afghan National Museum]].
-=== L'Eau ===
+The overall good news is the country has potential to quickly come out of poverty and become an economically stable country. This is due to many reports showing that the country has possession of mass amounts of high demand natural resources and minerals. According to the US Geological Survey and the Afghan Ministry of Mines and Industry, Afghanistan may be possessing up to 36 trillion cubic feet of [[natural gas]], 3.6 billion barrels of [[petroleum]] and up to 1,325 million barrels of [[natural gas liquids]]. This could mark the turning point in Afghanistan’s reconstruction efforts. Energy exports could generate the revenue that Afghan officials need to modernize the country’s infrastructure and expand economic opportunities for the beleaguered and fractious population.<ref name="Eurasianet">[http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav090306.shtml ''Afghanistan’s Energy Future and its Potential Implications''], Eurasianet.org.</ref> Other reports suggest that the country has huge amounts of gold, copper, coal, [[iron ore]] and other rich [[minerals]].<ref name="AfghanMinerals"/><ref name="Pajhwok"/>
-Il est claire aujourd'hui que l'[[eau]] sera l'enjeu du XXIe siècle. En ce qui concerne l'Afghanistan, l'eau n'en manque pas, bien au contraire. Le pays contient en son centre un massif montagneux qui culmine à plus de 7000 mètres d'altitude appelé [[Hindou-Kouch]], le peid-mont de l'[[Himalaya]]. Ce massif montagneux contient des milliers de milliards de mètres cubes d'eau gelés en neiges éternelles. Plus d'une demi-douzaine de fleuves prennent leur source dans ce massif. Les problèmes de sécheresse sont essentiellement dus à l'absence d'un système d'irrigation efficace.
+Afghanistan is now a member of [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|SAARC]] and [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]] [[regional organization]]s, as well as the [[Economy of the OIC|Organization of the Islamic Conference]].
-=== Les ressources naturelles ===
+{{seealso|Opium Production in Afghanistan}}
-Au moyen âge déjà certains géographes comme l'arabe [[Ibn Hauqal]] (Xe siècle) font état d'une extraordinaire richesse du pays en ces termes : "On se procure à [[Badakhchan]] de magnifiques grenats, de splendides pierres précieuses qui valent les rubis par leur beauté et par l'éclat surprenant de leurs coloris roses, grenadins, purpurins ou encore d'une nuance lie-de-vin. C'est également là que l'on extrait le lapis-lazuli, grâce aux nombreux gisements des montagnes environnantes."
+==Demographics==
+{{main|Demography of Afghanistan}}
+{{see|Afghan refugees}}
+The population of Afghanistan is divided into a wide variety of ethnic groups. Because a systematic census has not been held in the country in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are not available.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3717092.stm BBC News - Afghan poll's ethnic battleground - [[October 6]], [[2004]]]</ref> Therefore most figures are approximations only.
-En outre le pays dispose d'autres innombrables richesses en tout genre et un immense potentiel d'exploitation à l'échelle industrielle. La signature d'un protocole d'accord, le 21 Novembre 2007, entre le ministère des mines et 2 compagnies chinoises China Metallurgical Group et Jiangxi Cooper Co sur les mines de cuivre d'[[Aïnak]], témoigne de ce potentiel.
+===Languages===
+{{main|Languages of Afghanistan}}
+{{columns|width=50%|col1=The [[CIA World Factbook]] on languages spoken in Afghanistan is shown in the right image box.
+[[Persian language|Persian]] ([[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari dialects]]) 50% and [[Pashto language|Pashto]] 35%; both are [[Indo-European language]]s from the [[Iranian languages]] sub-family. Pashto and Persian are the [[official languages]] of the country.  [[Hazaragi]], spoken by the Hazara minority, is another dialect of Persian.  Other languages spoken include [[Turkic languages]] (primarily [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]) 9%, as well as 30 minor languages 4% (primarily [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]], [[Pashai]], [[Brahui language|Brahui]], [[Pamir languages|Pamiri languages]], [[Hindko language|Hindko]], [[Hindi]]/[[Urdu]], etc.). [[Bilingualism]] is common.
-'''Le Charbon'''
+According to the Encyclopædia Iranica,<ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f5/v1f5a040a.html "Af<u>gh</u>ānistān: (v.) languages"] by L. Dupree, ''Encyclopædia Iranica'' Online Edition 2006.</ref> the Persian language is the mother tongue of roughly one-third of Afghanistan's population, while it is also the most widely used language of the country, spoken by around 80% of the population. It further states that Pashto is spoken by around 50% of the population.|col2=
+[[Image:Languages of afghanistan-provinces.jpg|thumb|right|350px|'''Languages of Afghanistan''' ''(percentages are from [[CIA World Factbook]]<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook]</ref>)''
+<!--light green--> {{legend|#58D87B|50% [[Persian language|Persian]] ([[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]])}}
+<!--brown-->  {{legend|#665600|35% [[Pashto]]}}
+<!--orange-->      {{legend|#FDA51F|8% [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]}}
+<!--orange-->      {{legend|#FDA51F|3% [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]}}
+<!--gray-->        {{legend|#D8C3C8|4% [[Balochi language|Balochi]]}}
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{smaller|2% other ([[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]], [[Pashai]], [[Brahui]], etc.)}}
+]]
+}}
-Une des richesses de l'avenir, le charbon est aujourd'hui exploité de manière quelque peu rudimentaire par des habitants environnant les gisements. L'utilisation de celui-ci est encore domestique, essentiellement pour le chauffage. Mais on estime que l'exploitation du charbon en Afghanistan pourrait rendre le pays autosuffisant en termes d'énergie. Reste cependant l'obstacle écologique qui est d'ailleurs parfaitement fondé. A l'heure où tout le monde cherche le moyen de réduire l'émission de CO2 dans l'atmosphère, le choix du charbon comme énergie serait une erreur stratégique pour le développement de l'Afghanistan.
+===Ethnic groups===
+[[Image:Ethnic groups of afghanistan-provinces.jpg|thumb|right|350px|'''Ethnic groups of Afghanistan''' ''(percentages are from [[Encyclopædia Iranica]] and [[CIA World Factbook]]<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook]</ref>)''
+<!--brown-->  {{legend|#665600|36.4% to 42% [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]]}}
+<!--light green-->  {{legend|#58D87B|27% to 33.6% [[Tajiks|Tajik]]}}
+<!--yellow-->      {{legend|#FFF36D|8.0% to 9% [[Hazara people|Hazara]]}}
+<!--orange-->      {{legend|#FDA51F|8.0% to 9% [[Uzbek people|Uzbek]]}}
+{{spaces|6}}{{smaller|3.2% to 4% [[Aimak]]}}
+<!--orange-->      {{legend|#FDA51F|3% [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]]}}
+<!--gray-->        {{legend|#D8C3C8|1.6% to 4% [[Baloch]]}}
+{{spaces|6}}{{smaller|4% to 9.2% other ([[Pashai]], [[Nuristani people|Nuristani]], [[Brahui]], [[Hindkowans]], [[Republic of India|Hindustani]], etc.)}}
+]]
+An approximate distribution of ethnic groups according to the CIA World Factbook<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook]</ref> is as following:
+*[[Pashtun]]: 42%
+*[[Tajiks|Tajik]]: 27%
+*[[Hazara people|Hazara]]: 9%
+*[[Uzbeks|Uzbek]]: 9%
+*[[Aimak]]: 4%
+*[[Turkmen people|Turkmen]]: 3%
+*[[Baloch]]: 2%
+*Other: 4%
-'''Les métaux '''
+Based on official census numbers from the 1960s to the 1980s, as well as information found in mainly scholarly sources, the [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]<ref name="Iranica2">L. Dupree, ''"Af<u>gh</u>ānistān: (iv.) ethnocgraphy"'', in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition 2006, ([http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f5/v1f5a040a.html LINK])</ref>  gives the following list:
+* 36.4% Pashtun
+* 33.6% Tajik, [[Farsiwan]], and [[Qizilbash|Qezelbash]]
+* 8.0% Hazara
+* 8.0% Uzbek
+* 3.2% Aimak
+* 1.6% Baloch
+* 9.2% other
-L'Afghanistan regorge littéralement de métaux qu'ils soient ferreux ou non. La liste des métaux contenus dans les hautes montagnes afghanes est très longe. On peut notamment citer : plomb, zinc, l'alumine, le molybdène, le tungstène, la chromite, la baryte mais aussi des métaux très rares comme l'étain, lithium, pentoxyde de tantale sans oublier les incontournables qui sont le fer et le cuivre. Pour ce dernier, l'Afghanistan vient d'annoncer la signature de la cession d'exploitation de la célèbre mine de cuivre [[Aïnak]] qui est considérée par des spécialistes comme l'une des plus pures au monde. En effet la teneur en cuivre est estimé à plus de 57 % ce qui est extrêmement rare. Les clauses du contrat prévoient un investissement chinois (les gagnants de l'appel d'offre sont China Metallurgical Group et Jiangxi Cooper Co) de 3 500 000 000 $US, la construction du chemin de fer reliant le nord de l'Afghanistan à la frontière pakistanaise, la construction d'une centrale électrique de 400 MW et des royalties calculés sur 40 % des ventes de cuivre réalisés. En outre l'Afghanistan a obtenu la construction d'une usine de transformation de minerai en lingots de cuivre, ce qui permettra au pays d'en maîtrise la technologie et connaitre ainsi sa première remontée de filière.
+===Religions===
+{{main|Religion in Afghanistan}}
+[[Image:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Mazari Sharif|Blue Mosque in Mazari Sharif]].]]
+Religiously, Afghans are over 99% [[Muslims]]: approximately 74–89% [[Sunni]] and 9–25% [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]]<ref name="BritannicaPDF"/><ref name="CIA" /><ref>Goring, R. (ed): "Larousse Dictionary of Beliefs & Religions" (Larousse: 1994), pg. 581–58, Table: ''"Population Distribution of Major Beliefs"'', ISBN 0-7523-0000-8, Note: ''"... Figures have been compiled from the most accurate recent available information and are in most cases correct to the nearest 1% ..."''</ref> (estimates vary). Up until the mid-1980s, there were about 30,000 to 150,000 [[Hinduism in Afghanistan|Hindu]]s and [[Sikhs]] living in different cities, mostly in [[Jalalabad]], [[Kabul]], and [[Kandahar]].<ref>[http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml Hinduism Today: Hindus Abandon Afghanistan]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3138282.stm BBC South Asia: Sikhs struggle in Afghanistan]</ref>
-En outre le fer peut également constituer une source importante de devises pour le pays. En effet selon Albert de Lapparent, ancien directeur de CNRS, la teneur en fer des gisements de fer découverts au [[Bâmiyân]] (centre de l'Afghanistan) est estimé à 61 % ce qui est plus que rare. L'exploitation des minerais de fer n'est pour l'instant pas l'ordre du jour, mais représente un immense potentiel pour le pays.
+There was a small [[Jew]]ish community in Afghanistan (''see [[Bukharan Jews]]'') who fled the country after the 1979 Soviet invasion, and only one individual, [[Zablon Simintov]], remains today.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html Washingtonpost.com - Afghan Jew Becomes Country's One and Only - N.C. Aizenman]</ref>
-Par ailleurs des gisements de l’Or ont également été découvertes dans des régions assez éloignées les unes des autres. Au Badakhchan fut découverte dans les années 1960 une importante mine d'Or qui n'est malheureusement toujours pas exploitée. Plus récemment une mine d'Or a été découverte en 2003 près d'Herat à l'ouest de l'Afghanistan. L'exploitation a déjà commencé et c'est une entreprise britannique qui l'assure. D'autres opportunités existent.
+===Largest cities===
+{{seealso|List of cities in Afghanistan|Places in Afghanistan}}
+The only city in Afghanistan with over one million residents is its capital, Kabul. The other major cities in the country are, in order of population size, [[Kandahar]], Herat, [[Mazari Sharif]], [[Jalalabad]], Ghazni and [[Kunduz]].
-Les futures investissements en Afghanistan, certainement pour 10 ou 15 années avenirs seront très vraisemblablement concentrés autour de ces gisements de métaux ferreux et non ferreux car ils constituent un potentiel de développement et de croissance considérables tant pour le pays que pour les entreprises qui envisagent d'y investir.
+==Culture==
+{{main|Culture of Afghanistan}}
+[[Image:Afghan girls in traditional clothes.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Afghanistani girls, wearing their traditional clothes, sing at a celebration of International Women's Day in 2002.]]
+Afghans display pride in their religion, country, ancestry, and above all, their independence. Like other highlanders, Afghans are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, for their high regard for personal honor, for their [[clan]] loyalty and for their readiness to carry and use arms to settle disputes.<ref name="Heathcote">Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839–1919", Sellmount Staplehurst</ref> As clan warfare and internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreign invaders to hold the region.
-'''Pierres semi-précieuses'''
+Afghanistan has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of the country's historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars. The two famous statues of Buddha in the Bamyan Province were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as [[Idolatry|idolatrous]]. Other famous sites include the very cities of [[Kandahar]], Herat, Ghazni and Balkh. The Minaret of Jam, in the [[Hari Rud]] valley, is a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage site]]. The cloak worn by [[Muhammad]] is stored inside the famous Khalka Sharifa in Kandahar City.
-Depuis l'antiquité l'Afghanistan est la source principale de [[lapis-lazuli]] pour toute la planète. Cette pierre semi précieuse incrustée de quartz a servi à fabriquer des bijoux qu'on a retrouvés dans les tombes des nobles aussi bien en [[Inde]], qu'en [[Chine]] et même en [[Egypte antique]]. En outre [[lapis-lazuli]] a servi de pigment bleu pour la peinture de la période de la renaissance en Europe. A titre d'exemple citons le bleu éclatant qui a servi à peindre le ciel sur le dôme de la [[chapelle Sixtine]] au Vatican, ce pigment bleu provient du lapis-lazuli venu sur le dos des chameaux afghans.
+[[Buzkashi]] is a national sport in Afghanistan. It is similar to [[polo]] and played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold off a [[goat]] carcass. [[Afghan hound]]s (a type of running [[dog]]) also originated from Afghanistan.
-'''Pierres Précieuses'''
+Although literacy levels are very low, classic [[Persian literature|Persian poetry]] plays a very important role in the Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in [[Iran]] and Afghanistan, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Persian culture has, and continues to, exert a great influence over Afghan culture. Private poetry competition events known as “musha’era” are quite common even among ordinary people. Almost every home owns one or more poetry collection of some sort, even if it is not read often.
-En ce qui concerne les pierres précieuses, hors mis le diamant, l'Afghanistan contient quasiment toutes les autres pierres précieuses, parmi lesquelles on peut citer l'[[Emeraude]], le [[Rubis]], le [[Saphir]]. Le pays a même donné son nom à une pierre : l'[[afghanite]]. Notons que le commerce de l'Emeraude et de lapis-lazuli a permis au Commandant [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] de payer la guerre coûteuse qu'il menait contre les taliban<ref>taliban est le pluriel de taleb, il n'est donc pas besoin de mettre un "s" à la fin de taliban au pluriel </ref>.
+The eastern dialects of the Persian language are popularly known as "Dari". The name itself derives from "Pārsī-e Darbārī", meaning ''Persian of the royal courts''. The ancient term ''Darī'' &ndash; one of the original names of the Persian language &ndash; was revived in the Afghan constitution of 1964, and was intended ''"to signify that Afghans consider their country the cradle of the language.  Hence, the name ''Fārsī'', the language of [[Fars|Fārs]], is strictly avoided. With this point in mind, we can consider the development of Dari or Persian literature in the political entity known as Afghanistan."''<ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/pdfarticles/v1_articles/afghanistan/literature&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/logs/pdfdownload.html "Modern literature of Afghanistan"] by R. Farhādī, ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', xii, Online Edition.</ref>
-'''Gaz naturel et le Pétrole'''
+Many of the famous [[List of Persian poets and authors|Persian poets]] of the tenth to fifteenth centuries stem from Khorasan where is now known as Afghanistan. They were mostly also scholars in many disciplines like languages, natural sciences, medicine, religion and astronomy.
+*[[Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi|Mawlānā Rumi]], who was born and educated in Balkh in the thirteenth century and moved to [[Konya]] in modern-day [[Turkey]]
+*[[Rabi'a Balkhi]] (the first poetess in the History of Persian Poetry, tenth century, native of Balkh)
+*[[Abu Mansur Daqiqi|Daqiqi Balkhi]] (tenth century, native of Balkh)
+*[[Farrukhi Sistani]] (tenth century, the [[Ghaznavids]] royal poet)
+*[[Unsuri|Unsuri Balkhi]] (a tenth/eleventh century poet, native of Balkh)
+*[[Khwaja Abdullah Ansari]] (eleventh century, from Herat)
+*[[Nasir Khusraw]] (eleventh century, from Qubadyan near Balkh)
+*[[Anvari]] (twelfth century, lived and died in Balkh)
+*[[Sanaayi|Sanā'ī Ghaznawi]] (twelfth century, native of Ghazni)
+*[[Jami|Jāmī of Herāt]] (fifteenth century, native of Herat in western Afghanistan), and his nephew Abdullah Hatifi Herawi, a well-known poet
+*[[Alisher Navoi|Alī Sher Navā'ī]] (fifteenth century, Herat).
-En ce qui concerne le Gaz Naturel, le pays est fort d'importants gisement dont l'exploitation avait commencé il y a plus de 60 ans déjà. Dans les années 80 les réserves de Gaz Naturel étaient estimées par la Banque Mondiale à 140 milliards de mètres cubes. Aujourd'hui les études préliminaires montrent que ces évaluations ont été sous estimées d’au moins 18 fois, les réserves estimées seraient donc près de 2520 milliards de mètres cubes de Gaz. D'autres experts pensent que les réserves de Gaz sont encore plus importantes puisque les estimations ne concernaient que le Nord et l'Ouest du pays or certaines poches de Gaz ont été découvertes dans le Sud et l'Est de l'Afghanistan.
+Most of these individuals were of Persian ([[Tajiks|Tājīk]]) ethnicity who still form the second-largest ethnic group in Afghanistan. Also, some of the contemporary Persian language poets and writers, who are relatively well-known in Persian-speaking world, include [[Ustad Betab]], [[Qari Abdullah]], [[Khalilullah Khalili]],<ref>[http://www.afghanmagazine.com/arts/khalili/khalili.html Afghanmagazine.com - Ustad Khalilullah Khalili - 1997]</ref> [[Sufi Ghulam Nabi Ashqari]],<ref>[http://www.afghanmagazine.com/jan2000/music/kharaabat/ Afghanmagazine.com - Kharaabat - by Yousef Kohzad - 2000]</ref> [[Sarwar Joya]], [[Qahar Asey]], [[Parwin Pazwak]] and others. In 2003, Khaled Hosseini published The Kiterunner which though fiction, captured much of the history, politics and culture experienced in Afghanistan from the 1930s to present day.
-En ce qui concerne le pétrole, les réserves ont été sous estimés par les soviétiques. Le pays contiendrait 90 fois plus de pétrole que ce qui avait été annoncé par les soviétiques dans années 80.  Aujourd’hui des compagnies pétrolières comme [[Unocal]], [[Texaco]], [[BP]] et [[Total]] ont installé des bureaux à Kaboul espérant de remporter des appels d’offres du gouvernement.
+In addition to poets and authors, numerous [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars|Persian scientists]] have had their origins lie in where it's now called Afghanistan. Most notable was [[Avicenna]] (Abu Alī Hussein ibn Sīnā) whose father hailed from Balkh. Ibn Sīnā, who travelled to [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] later in life to establish a medical school there, is known by some scholars as "the father of modern medicine". George Sarton called ibn Sīnā "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." His most famous works are ''The Book of Healing'' and ''The Canon of Medicine'', also known as the Qanun. Ibn Sīnā's story even found way to the contemporary English literature through [[Noah Gordon]]'s ''[[The Physician]]'', now published in many languages. Moreover, according to [[Ibn al-Nadim]], [[Al-Farabi]], a well-known Philosopher and Scientist, was from the Faryab Province of Afghanistan, .
-===Production de tapis===
+Before the Taliban gained power, the city of Kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the [[Nauroz]]-celebration. Kabul in the middle part of the twentieth century has been likened to [[Vienna]] during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
-L'Afghanistan est l'un des plus grands producteurs de [[tapis]] du monde.
+The tribal system, which orders the life of most people outside metropolitan areas, is potent in political terms. Men feel a fierce loyalty to their own tribe, such that, if called upon, they would assemble in arms under the tribal chiefs and local clan leaders (Khans). In theory, under Islamic law, every believer has an obligation to bear arms at the ruler's call ([[Ulul-Amr]]).
-Ce secteur d'activité emploie plus de 1 million de personnes, soit 3 % de la population. Des millions d'autres personnes travaillent dans des branches d'activité annexes, telles que la production de la [[laine]], la coupe, le lavage et le design.
+Heathcote considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle.<ref name="Heathcote">Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839–1919", Sellmount Staplehurst</ref>
-En 2005, les [[exportation]]s de tapis de l'Afghanistan ont atteint 140
+==Infrastructure==
-millions de [[dollar US|dollars US]], ce qui en fait officiellement le produit d'exportation le plus important du pays.
+===Communications and technology===
+{{main|Communications in Afghanistan}}
+Afghanistan has rapidly advanced in communication technology, and now has wireless companies, Internet, radio stations and television channels. Afghan telecommunication companies, Afghan Telecom, [[Afghan Wireless]], [[Roshan (Telecom)|Roshan]], Areeba and Etisalat which is expected to be launched in 2007, have boasted a rapid increase in cellular phone usage.{{Facts|date=September 2007}} In 2006, the Afghan Ministry of Communications has signed a [[US Dollar|US$]]64.5 million agreement with ZTE Corporation for the establishment of a countrywide fibre optic cable network. This will improve telephone, internet, television and radio broadcast services throughout the country.<ref>[http://www.pajhwok.com/viewstory.asp?lng=eng&id=26882 ''Ministry signs contract with Chinese company''], Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>
-Selon une étude réalisée pour le compte de l'[[Agence des États-Unis pour le développement international]], l'importance de ce secteur doublerait si le pays pouvait faire revenir les entreprises qui se sont délocalisées au Pakistan.
+===Transportation===
+{{main|Transportation in Afghanistan}}
-Seule une petite proportion des tapis au dessin très
+Afghanistan's commercial airline, Ariana Afghan Airlines, now serves flights to [[Frankfurt]], [[Dubai]] and [[Istanbul]] to and from [[Kabul]] and [[Herat]].  Automobiles have recently become more widely available, with [[Toyota]], [[Land Rover]], [[BMW]] and [[Hyundai]] dealerships all over Kabul, and imports of second-hand vehicles from the [[UAE]] on display in Kandahar.{{Facts|date=September 2007}}
-élaboré et aux belles couleurs est vendue à l'étranger en tant que produits afghans, car plus de 90 % d'entre eux sont envoyés au [[Pakistan]] pour la coupe, le lavage et la finition. Ils sont alors exportés avec une étiquette indiquant qu'ils ont été fabriqués au Pakistan.
-=== Narco-économie ===
+===Education===
-Depuis le retrait des troupes soviétiques, la production de l'[[opium]] est une source importante de revenus pour les Afghans. Ainsi dans son livre ''Afghanistan - Opium de guerre, opium de paix'', le [[Journalisme|journaliste]] et [[Sociologie|sociologue]] [[Alain Labrousse]] estime qu'un tiers de l'économie du pays repose sur le trafic d'opium ou de ses dérivés.
+{{main|Education in Afghanistan}}
+In early 2003 it was estimated that 30% of Afghanistan's 7,000 schools had been very seriously damaged during more than two decades of civil war. Only half of the schools were reported to have clean water, while fewer than an estimated 40% had adequate sanitation.
-Même durant la période des Talibans, sa production a continué, avec plus ou moins un laisser aller de la part des autorités talibanes. Le [[Mohammad Omar|mollah Omar]] a même déclaré à des journalistes [[Allemagne|allemands]] : « À long terme, notre objectif est de nettoyer complètement l'Afghanistan de la [[drogue]]. Mais on ne peut pas demander à ceux dont l'existence dépend entièrement de la récolte de passer du jour au lendemain à d'autres cultures. ». Il a tout de même ajouté que « si des non-musulmans souhaitent acheter de la drogue et s'intoxiquer, ce n'est pas à nous qu'il appartient de les protéger ».  Durant l'été de l'an 2000, les Talibans ont malgré tout décidé de faire cesser complètement la production d'opium, la faisant baisser de plus de 95%.  Le peu d'opium encore produit en Afghanistan le fut très majoritairement sur des territoires contrôlés par l'Alliance du Nord, dont la province du [[Badakhchan (Afghanistan)|Badakhchan]] qui produisit à elle seule 83% du pavot afghan entre l'été 2000 et la fin de 2001.
+As regards the poverty and violence of their surroundings, a study in 2002 by the [[Save the Children Fund]] said Afghan children were resilient and courageous. The study credited the strong institutions of family and community.
-Depuis la fin de la [[Guerre d'Afghanistan (2001)|guerre d'Afghanistan]] en [[2001]] et la mise en place d'un nouveau [[gouvernement]], la culture du [[pavot]], qui était déjà diffuse à l’époque des Talibans, a aujourd’hui atteint des niveaux records estimée pour 2006 à 6100 tonnes, ce qui dépasse largement la demande mondiale et concurrence durement les autres produits de la [[toxicomanie]]. La production par irrigation de légumes ou de fleurs peut avoir une possibilité mais est très vulnérable aux sabotages.
+As of 2006 more than four million male and female students are enrolled in schools throughout the country. Primary education is totally free and available for all boys and girls.
-Selon le rapport annuel de l'[[Office des Nations unies contre la drogue et le crime]] (ONUDC), publié le 27 août 2007, la production d'opium en Afghanistan a augmenté de 34 % entre 2006 et 2007. Le montant total de la récolte de pavot s'élèvera à 8 200 tonnes pour 2007, contre 6 100 tonnes en 2006. En tout, les terres d'Afghanistan utilisées pour la culture du pavot sont passées de 165 000 hectares en 2006 à 193 000 en 2007. D'après les enquêteurs de l'ONUDC, la culture du pavot se développe essentiellement là où la présence des [[talibans]] est très importante, dans le sud, soit à 80 % dans quelques provinces le long de la frontière avec le [[Pakistan]]. [http://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-3216,36-948156@51-948158,0.html].
+Literacy of the entire population is estimated (as of 1999) at 36%, the male literacy rate is 51% and female literacy is 21%. Up to now there are 9,500 schools in the country.
-Autre point de comparaison issu de l'ONUDC, d'après ses rapports "opium survey 2001"<ref>http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/crop_monitoring_surveys_previous.html</ref> et "Afghanistan Opium Survey 2007"<ref>http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/crop_monitoring.html</ref>, la surface cultivée en pavot est passée de 7.606 ha en 2001 (dont plus de 80%, 6.342 ha, dans la province du [[Badakhshan]], celle qui était à l'époque principalement contrôlée par l'Alliance du Nord), à 197.000 ha en 2007 (dont 70% dans 5 provinces du Sud-Ouest bordant le [[Pakistan]], principalement celle de [[Helmand]]). Ceci représente une multiplication par 26 de la surface cultivée entre la dernière année du régime des Talibans et la situation actuelle.
+Another aspect of education that is rapidly changing in Afghanistan is the face of [[higher education]]. Following the fall of the Taliban, [[Kabul University]] was reopened to both male and female students. In 2006, the [[American University of Afghanistan]] also opened its doors, with the aim of providing a world-class, English-language, co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan. The university accepts students from Afghanistan and the neighboring countries. Construction work will soon start at the new site selected for [[University of Balkh]] in Mazari Sharif. The new building for the university, including the building for the Engineering Department, would be constructed at <span style="white-space:nowrap">600&nbsp;acres&nbsp;(2.4&nbsp;km²)</span> of land at the cost of 250 million US dollars.<ref>[http://www.pajhwok.com/viewstory.asp?lng=eng&id=28303 ''Pakistan grants $10m for Balkh University''], Pajhwok Afghan News.</ref>
-=== Télécommunications ===
+==See also==
-En 2006 une des plus importantes entreprises du pays était l'entreprise de téléphonie mobile Roshan. Portée par les investissements du prince [[Karim Aga Khan IV]], elle a pu se targuer d'être le premier employeur privé du pays.
+{{portal|SAARC|Logo of SAARC.svg}}
+*[[History of Afghanistan]]
+*[[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]]
+*[[Human rights in Afghanistan]]
+*[[Help Afghan School Children Organization]]
+*[[Afghan Scout Association]]
+*[[Golden Needle Sewing School]]
+*[[Afghanaid]]
+*[[Afuganisu-tan]]
-== Démographie ==
+==Bibliography==
-{{Article détaillé|Démographie de l'Afghanistan}}
+<div class="references-small">
-[[Image:Afghanistan demography.svg|thumb|300px|right|Évolution de la démographie entre 1961 et 2004 (chiffre de la [[Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture|FAO]], 2006). Population en milliers d'habitants.]]
+{{columns|width=50%
+|col1=
+*Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1977). ''An Historical Guide to Afghanistan''.  2nd Edition. Revised and Enlarged. Afghan Tourist Organization. http://www.zharov.com/dupree/index.html
+*Fowler, Corinne. Chasing Tales: Travel writing, journalism and the history of British ideas about Afghanistan, 2007 (forthcoming), Rodopi, Amsterdam and New York.
+*Ghobar, Mir Gholam Mohammad. Afghanistan in the Course of History, 1999, All Prints Inc. [http://www.cpol.net/history/]
+*Griffiths, John C. 1981. ''Afghanistan: A History of Conflict''. André Deutsch, London. Updated edition, 2001. Andre Deutsch Ltd, 2002, ISBN 0-233-05053-1.
+*Levi, Peter. 1972. ''The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan''. Collins, 1972, ISBN 0-00-211042-3. Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1973, Indianapolis/New York, ISBN 0-672-51252-1.
+*[[William Moorcroft (traveller)|Moorcroft, William]] and [[Trebeck, George]]. 1841. ''Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825'', Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. Oxford University Press, 1979, ISBN 0-19-577199-0.
+|col2 =
+*Rashid, Ahmed (2000) "Taliban - Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia", Yale University Press
+*[[Olaf Caroe|Caroe, Olaf]]. 1958. ''The Pathans'' (on the ethnic origin of Afghans).
+*Shahrani, M. Nazif. (1979) ''The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan: Adaptation to Closed Frontiers and War''. University of Washington Press. 1st paperback edition with new preface and epilogue (2002). ISBN 0-295-98262-4.
+*Toynbee, Arnold J. 1961. ''Between Oxus and Jumna''. Oxford University Press, London. ISBN B0006DBR44.
+*Wood, John. 1872. ''A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus''. New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the "Geography of the Valley of the Oxus" by Henry Yule. John Murray, London. Gregg Division McGraw-Hill, 1971, ISBN 0-576-03322-7.
+*Heathcote, T.A. The Afghan Wars 1839–1999, 1980,2003, Spellmount Staplehurst.
+*Rall, Ted. 2002. "To Afghanistan and Back: A Graphic Travelogue" New York: NBM Publishing.
+*Vogelsang, Willem. 2002. ''The Afghans''. Blackwell Publishers. Oxford. ISBN 0631198415.
+}}
+</div>
-La population de l'Afghanistan est divisée en un grand nombre de groupes ethniques. Parce qu'un recensement systématique n'a pas été organisé dans le pays récemment, les chiffres exacts sur la taille et la composition des divers groupes ethniques ne sont pas disponibles. Par conséquent, les chiffres suivants ne sont que des approximations. Les personnes parlant le [[pachto]] (les [[Pachtounes]]) forment le plus grand groupe estimé à plus de 38 % de la population. Le deuxième plus grand groupe parlent le dari comprenant les [[Tadjiks]] (25%) et les [[Hazaras]] (19%), les [[Ouzbeks]] (6%), il y a également une présence non-négligeable de tribus comme les [[Aimak]], les [[Turkmènes]], les [[Baloutches]] et les Pashayis. Le bilinguisme est commun en Afghanistan. Ainsi, un petit nombre de minorités ethniques, principalement les [[Sikhs]] et les [[Hindou]]s, parlent le [[panjâbî]].
+==References and footnotes==
+{{Reflist|2}}
-Pour la religion, les Afghans sont à prédominance [[musulman]]e (approximativement 80% [[sunnite]]s et 20% [[chiite]]s). Il existe aussi des minorités hindouistes et sikhs, avec une minorité juive de 1% qui, récemment encore, était de 2%. Beaucoup de ceux-ci ont fui pendant la guerre civile des années 1990 vers les contrées voisines et vers l'Europe et l'Amérique. Avec la chute des Talibans, plusieurs [[Sikhs]] sont retournés dans la [[Ghazni (province)|province de Ghazni]] d'Afghanistan.
+==External links==
+{{externallinks}}
+{{Wikisource1911Enc|Afghanistan}}
+{{sisterlinks|Afghanistan}}
+<div style="font-size:95%;">
-== Culture ==
+'''Official government sites'''
-{{Article détaillé|Culture de l'Afghanistan}}
+*[http://www.af/ Official website of Afghanistan]
+*[http://www.president.gov.af/ Official website of the President of Afghanistan]
+*[http://www.loc.gov/law/guide/afghanistan.html Laws of Afghanistan]
+*[http://www.customs.gov.af/ Afghanistan Customs]
+*[http://www.ands.gov.af/ Afghanistan National Development Strategy (ANDS)]
+*[http://www.aisa.org.af/ Afghanistan Investment Support Agency (AISA)]
-Beaucoup de monuments historiques du pays ont été endommagés dans les guerres récentes, dont les deux célèbres statues de [[Bouddhas de Bamiyan|Bouddhas]] dans la [[Bâmiyân (province)|Bâmiyân]], détruits en 2001.
+'''General information'''
+*{{CIA World Factbook link|af|Afghanistan}}
+*[http://www.embassyofafghanistan.org/brief.html Afghanistan in Brief (Embassy of Afghanistan)]
+*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1162668.stm BBC News Country Profile - Afghanistan]
+*[http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel/destinationAfghanistan.aspx CDC Health Information for Afghanistan]
+*[http://numismondo.com/pm/afg Afghanistan's Paper Money]
+*{{wikitravel}}
-== Éducation ==
+'''Culture and news'''
-{{Article détaillé|Éducation en Afghanistan}}
+*[http://www.pajhwok.com/ Pajhwok Afghan News]
+*[http://www.islamicrepublicofafghanistan.com Islamic Republic Of Afghanistan] Afghan cultural issues
+*[http://www.afghanistan.culturalprofiles.net/ Afghanistan Cultural Profile] - Afghanistan national cultural portal
+*[http://www.kabulpress.org/indexkabul.htm KabulPress.org]
+*[http://www.aopnews.com/ Afghan Online Press]
+*[http://www.afgha.com/ News, Information, Pictures from Afghanistan]
+*[http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/ RAWA News]
+*[http://www.afghan-web.com/ Afghanistan Online]
+*[http://www.bakhtarnews.com.af/?Lang=E Bakhtar News Agency (Official Afghan Agency)]
+*[http://www.eafghans.com/ General Afghan Information and Entertainment Portal]
+*[http://www.afghanan.net/ Afghan History and Entertainment Portal]
-Au printemps [[2003]], on estimait que 30% des 7 000 écoles d'Afghanistan avaient été sérieusement endommagées pendant la vingtaine d'années de l'occupation soviétique et de la guerre civile. Seulement la moitié des écoles ont indiqué avoir de l'eau potable, tandis qu'un peu moins de 40% estimait avoir un état sanitaire adéquat. L'éducation pour les garçons ne fut pas une priorité pendant le régime des [[Taliban]]s, tandis que les filles en furent complètement bannies.
+'''Other'''
+*[http://asiapolis.perspektive89.com/gallery Picture galleries from Kabul and Afghanistan]
+*[http://www.afghanistan-photos.com Old photos of Afghanistan]
+*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/asia/centralasia/afghanistan/returntoafghanistan/returntoafghanistan.htm Return to Afghanistan - Short films by the Washington Post on the New Afghanistan]
+*[http://web.archive.org/web/20030621192703/http://www.mod.uk/rcds/bashir.htm British Royal College for Defense Studies analyses and proposes a war in August 2001]
+*[http://www.icssa.org/article_detail_parse.php?a_id=804&rel= Afghanistan: The Genesis of the Final Crusade, an insider's perspective of the war on Afghanistan]
+*[http://www.theafghanistandirectory.com/ The Afghanistan Directory]
-Portant un voile grillagé de toile, comme les heaumes des chevaliers du Moyen Âge, les Afganes obéissent à la tradition islamique la plus sévère. Elles doivent dissimuler tous leurs "appats tentateurs", qu'elles soient [[sunnite]]s comme les [[Patchou]]s et les [[Tadjiks]]  ou [[chiite]]s comme les [[Hazara]]s. Sous les défunts régimes communistes, certaines osaient montrer leur visage.
+</div>
-En regard de la pauvreté et de la violence de leur environnement, une étude de 2002 par le groupe d'aide ''[[Save the Children]]'' indique que les enfants afghans s'adaptent et sont courageux. L'étude donne du crédit aux institutions fortes de la famille et de la communauté.
+{{Template group
+|title = Geographic locale
+|list  =
+{{Countries of Central Asia}}
+{{Countries of South Asia}}
+{{Countries and territories of the Middle East}}
+{{Countries of Asia}}
+{{Provinces of Afghanistan}}
+}}
+{{Template group
+|title = International membership
+|list  =
+{{Islamic republics}}
+{{Indo-Iranian-speaking regions}}
+{{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)|state=collapsed}}
+}}
+{{Countries_of_the_Indosphere}}
-Plus de quatre millions d'enfants Afghans, sans doute le nombre maximal, sont reconnus avoir été scolarisés pour l'année scolaire qui a débutée en [[mars 2003]]. L'éducation est maintenant disponible pour les garçons et pour les filles.
+<!--As featured article-->
-Le niveau d'alphabétisation de la population est estimé à 36%.
+<s></s>
-{| class="wikitable"
+<!--Categories-->
-|+ '''Fêtes et jours fériés'''
+{{Link FA|no}}
-! Date !! {{nwt|Nom français}} !! {{nwt|Nom local}} !! Remarques
+<!--Other languages-->
-|-----
-| 21 mars || Norouz || Naw-Rouz ||
-|-----
-| || || ||
-|}
-== Données statistiques ==
+[[Category:Afghanistan| ]]
-<!-- Mise à jour selon source US (CIA: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html) avril 2006 -->
+[[Category:Iranian Plateau]]
-'''Capitale :''' Kaboul<br />
+[[Category:Islamic republics]]
-'''Population :''' 31 000 000 habitants (en 2006). 0-14 ans : 44,6%; 15-64 ans : 53%; + 65 ans: 2,4%<br />
+[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
-'''Superficie :''' 652 500 km²<br />
+[[Category:Least Developed Countries]]
-'''Densité :''' 47 hab./km²<br />
+[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]
-'''Frontières terrestres :''' 5 529 km ([[Pakistan]] 2 430 km ; [[Tadjikistan]] 1 206 km ; [[Iran]] 936 km ; [[Turkménistan]] 744 km ; [[Ouzbékistan]] 137 km ; [[République populaire de Chine|Chine]] 76 km)<br />
+[[Category:Persian-speaking countries and territories]]
-'''Littoral :''' 0 km<br />
+[[Category:South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation member states]]
-'''Indicateur de développement humain ([[IDH]]): '''0.247<br />
+[[Category:Territories under military occupation]]
-'''Extrémités d'altitude :''' de +258 m à +7 485 m<br />
-'''Espérance de vie des hommes :''' 43 ans (en [[2006]])<br />
-'''Espérance de vie des femmes :''' 44 ans (en [[2006]])<br />
-'''Taux de croissance de la pop. :''' +2,67% (en [[2006]])<br />
-'''Taux de natalité :''' 46,6 ‰ (en [[2005]])<br />
-'''Taux de mortalité :''' 20,34 ‰ (en [[2005]])<br />
-'''Taux de mortalité infantile :''' 160 ‰ (en [[2005]])<br />
-'''Taux de fécondité :''' 6,7 enfants/femme (en [[2005]])<br />
-'''Taux de migration :''' 11,11 ‰ (en [[2001]]) <!-- (selon sources US 0,42‰ en 2005)?? --><br />
-'''Indépendance :''' [[19 août]] [[1919]]<br />
-'''Lignes de téléphone :''' 50 000 (en [[2004]])<br />
-'''Téléphones portables :''' 600 000 (en [[2004]])<br />
-'''Postes de radio :''' 167 000 (en [[1999]])<br />
-'''Postes de télévision :''' 100 000 (en [[1999]])<br />
-'''Utilisateurs d'Internet :''' 25 000 (en [[2005]])<br />
-'''Nombre de fournisseurs d'accès :''' 76 (en [[2005]])<br />
-'''Routes:''' 34 800 km (dont 8 200 km goudronnés) (en [[2003]])<br />
-'''Voies ferrées :''' 24,6 km<br />
-'''Voies navigables :''' 1 200 km (en [[2001]])<br />
-'''Nombre d'aéroports :''' 46 (dont 10 avec des pistes goudronnées) (en [[2005]])<br />
-== Notes et références ==
-{{Références}} <!-- aide : http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide:Notes et références -->
-== Voir aussi ==
-{{CommonsCat|Afghanistan|l'Afghanistan}}
-=== Articles connexes ===
-{{Wikinews |Attentat suicide à Kaboul : 12 morts et 42 blessés.}}
-*[[Hekmatyar]]
-*[[Guerre d'Afghanistan (1979)]]
-*[[Guerre d'Afghanistan (2001)]]
-*[[Liste des dirigeants des provinces d’Afghanistan]]
-=== Liens externes ===
-{{wikiatlas|Afghanistan}}
-* {{dmoz|{{PAGENAME}}|http://www.dmoz.org/World/Français/Régional/Asie/Afghanistan/}}
-* [http://www.operationspaix.net/-FIAS- OperationsPaix.net] Chronologie et documents à jour sur l'opération de paix en cours, la Force internationale d'assistance à la sécurité (FIAS), en Afghanistan, du Réseau francophone de recherche sur les opérations de paix
-* [http://www.geopium.org/ L'Afghanistan sous l'angle de la géopolitique des drogues]
-==== Cartes et Galeries ====
-* [http://www.afghanistan-photos.com Photos anciennes d'Afghanistan]
-* [http://asiapolis.perspektive89.com/gallery Galeries d'image de Kaboul et d'Afghanistan]
-* [http://www.populationdata.net/pays/asie/afghanistan.php Données démographiques]
-* [http://www.bassirat.net/news/carte.php?c=2 Cartes des provinces afghanes (avec leurs districts)]
-{{Pays d'Asie}}
-{{République islamique}}
-{{Lien BA|de}}
-{{Lien BA|en}}
-{{Lien AdQ|no}}
-[[Catégorie:Afghanistan|*]]
 [[af:Afghanistan]]
 [[als:Afghanistan]]
+[[ar:أفغانستان]]
 [[an:Afganistán]]
-[[ar:أفغانستان]]
+[[frp:Afganistan]]
 [[ast:Afganistán]]
 [[az:Əfqanıstan]]
-[[bat-smg:Afganėstans]]
+[[bn:আফগানিস্তান]]
+[[zh-min-nan:Afghanistan]]
 [[be:Афганістан]]
 [[be-x-old:Аўганістан]]
-[[bg:Афганистан]]
-[[bn:আফগানিস্তান]]
 [[bo:ཨ་ཧྤུན་ཧན]]
-[[bpy:আফগানিস্তান]]
+[[bs:Afganistan]]
 [[br:Afghanistan]]
-[[bs:Afganistan]]
+[[bg:Афганистан]]
 [[ca:Afganistan]]
-[[cbk-zam:Afghanistan]]
+[[cv:Афганистан]]
 [[ceb:Afghanistan]]
 [[cs:Afghánistán]]
-[[cv:Афганистан]]
 [[cy:Afghanistan]]
 [[da:Afghanistan]]
+[[pdc:Afganischtaan]]
 [[de:Afghanistan]]
-[[diq:Efğanıstan]]
 [[dv:އަފްޣާނިސްތާން]]
 [[dz:ཨཕ་ག་ནིསི་ཏཱན་]]
+[[et:Afganistan]]
 [[el:Αφγανιστάν]]
-[[en:Afghanistan]]
-[[eo:Afganio]]
 [[es:Afganistán]]
-[[et:Afganistan]]
+[[eo:Afganio]]
 [[eu:Afganistan]]
 [[fa:افغانستان]]
-[[fi:Afganistan]]
+[[fr:Afghanistan]]
-[[frp:Afganistan]]
-[[fur:Afghanistan]]
 [[fy:Afganistan]]
+[[fur:Afghanistan]]
 [[ga:An Afganastáin]]
 [[gd:Afganastan]]
 [[gl:Afganistán - افغانستان]]
 [[gu:અફઘાનિસ્તાન]]
-[[he:אפגניסטן]]
+[[ko:아프가니스탄]]
+[[hy:Աֆղանստան]]
 [[hi:अफ़्ग़ानिस्तान]]
+[[hsb:Afghanistan]]
 [[hr:Afganistan]]
-[[hsb:Afghanistan]]
-[[ht:Afganistan]]
-[[hu:Afganisztán]]
-[[hy:Աֆղանստան]]
-[[ia:Afghanistan]]
-[[id:Afganistan]]
-[[ilo:Afganistan]]
 [[io:Afganistan]]
+[[ilo:Afganistan]]
+[[bpy:আফগানিস্তান]]
+[[id:Afganistan]]
+[[ia:Afghanistan]]
+[[os:Афгъанистан]]
 [[is:Afganistan]]
 [[it:Afghanistan]]
-[[ja:アフガニスタン]]
+[[he:אפגניסטן]]
 [[jv:Afganistan]]
+[[pam:Afghanistan]]
+[[kn:ಅಫ್ಘಾನಿಸ್ತಾನ]]
 [[ka:ავღანეთი]]
 [[kk:Ауғанстан]]
-[[km:អាហ្វហ្គានីស្តង់]]
-[[kn:ಅಫ್ಘಾನಿಸ್ತಾನ]]
-[[ko:아프가니스탄]]
-[[ku:Efxanistan]]
 [[kw:Afghanistan]]
+[[sw:Afghanistan]]
+[[ht:Afganistan]]
+[[ku:Efxanistan]]
 [[la:Afgania]]
+[[lv:Afganistāna]]
 [[lb:Afghanistan]]
-[[li:Afganistan]]
 [[lij:Afghanistan]]
 [[lt:Afganistanas]]
-[[lv:Afganistāna]]
+[[li:Afganistan]]
+[[hu:Afganisztán]]
 [[mk:Авганистан]]
 [[ml:അഫ്ഗാനിസ്ഥാന്‍]]
-[[mn:Афганистан]]
 [[mr:अफगाणिस्तान]]
 [[ms:Afghanistan]]
-[[na:Afganistan]]
+[[mn:Афганистан]]
 [[nah:Afganistān]]
-[[nds:Afghanistan]]
+[[na:Afganistan]]
 [[nl:Afghanistan]]
-[[nn:Afghanistan]]
+[[ja:アフガニスタン]]
 [[no:Afghanistan]]
+[[nn:Afghanistan]]
 [[nov:Afganistan]]
 [[oc:Afganistan]]
-[[os:Афгъанистан]]
+[[ug:ئافغانىستان]]
+[[uz:Afg`oniston]]
 [[pag:Afghanistan]]
-[[pam:Afghanistan]]
+[[ps:افغانستان]]
-[[pdc:Afganischtaan]]
+[[km:អាហ្វហ្គានីស្តង់]]
-[[pl:Afganistan]]
 [[pms:Afgànistan]]
-[[ps:افغانستان]]
+[[nds:Afghanistan]]
+[[pl:Afganistan]]
 [[pt:Afeganistão]]
-[[qu:Afgansuyu]]
 [[ro:Afganistan]]
+[[qu:Afgansuyu]]
 [[ru:Афганистан]]
+[[se:Afghanistan]]
 [[sa:अफगानस्थान]]
+[[sq:Afganistani]]
 [[scn:Afganistàn]]
-[[se:Afghanistan]]
-[[sh:Afganistan]]
 [[simple:Afghanistan]]
 [[sk:Afganistan]]
 [[sl:Afganistan]]
-[[sq:Afganistani]]
 [[sr:Авганистан]]
+[[sh:Afganistan]]
 [[su:Apganistan]]
+[[fi:Afganistan]]
 [[sv:Afghanistan]]
-[[sw:Afghanistan]]
+[[tl:Afghanistan]]
 [[ta:ஆப்கானிஸ்தான்]]
 [[te:ఆఫ్ఘనిస్తాన్]]
 [[tet:Afeganistaun]]
+[[th:ประเทศอัฟกานิสถาน]]
+[[vi:Afghanistan]]
 [[tg:Афғонистон]]
-[[th:ประเทศอัฟกานิสถาน]]
+[[tr:Afganistan]]
 [[tk:Owganystan]]
-[[tl:Afghanistan]]
-[[tr:Afganistan]]
 [[udm:Афганистан]]
-[[ug:ئافغانىستان]]
 [[uk:Афганістан]]
 [[ur:افغانستان]]
-[[uz:Afg`oniston]]
 [[vec:Afganistan]]
-[[vi:Afghanistan]]
 [[vo:Lafganistän]]
 [[war:Afganistan]]
 [[wo:Afganistaan]]
 [[yi:אפגאניסטאן]]
+[[zh-yue:阿富汗]]
+[[cbk-zam:Afghanistan]]
+[[diq:Efğanıstan]]
+[[bat-smg:Afganėstans]]
 [[zh:阿富汗]]
-[[zh-min-nan:Afghanistan]]
-[[zh-yue:阿富汗]]