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Albert Einstein

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(Addition was problematic (why *should* Nobel org. take a position on particle nature of light?) and would be better addressed in article on photoelectric effect or photon, with more context.)
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-{{Infobox Scientifique+{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
-|nom = Albert Einstein+{{Infobox Scientist
-|image = Albert Einstein 1947.jpg+| name = Albert Einstein
-|texte = Albert Einstein en [[1947]].+| image = Albert_Einstein_Head.jpg
-|date_naissance = {{Date|14|mars|1879}}+| image_width = 220px
-|lieu_naissance = [[Württemberg]]+| caption = Einstein in 1947
-|pays_naissance = [[Allemagne]]+| birth_date = {{birth date|1879|3|14}}
-|date_décès = {{Date|18|avril|1955}}+| birth_place = [[Ulm]], [[Württemberg]], [[Germany]]
-|lieu_décès = [[Princeton (New Jersey)|Princeton]]+| death_date = {{death date and age|1955|4|18|1879|3|14}}
-|pays_décès = [[États-Unis]]+| death_place = [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]], [[United States|U.S.]]
-|domicile = +| residence = [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Switzerland]], [[United States]]
-|nationalité = allemande (1879–96)<br/>suisse (1901–55)<br/>américaine(1940–55)+| citizenship = [[Germany|German]] (1879–96, 1914–33)</br>[[Switzerland|Swiss]] (1901–55)</br>[[United States|American]] (1940–55)
-|champs = [[physique]]+| ethnicity = [[Jewish]]
-|institutions = +| field = [[Physics]]
-|diplômé = [[ETH Zurich]]+| work_institutions = [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Patent Office]] [[Bern|(Berne)]]</br>[[University of Zurich|Univ. of Zurich]]</br> [[Charles University of Prague|Charles Univ.]]</br>[[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Prussian Acad. of Sciences]]</br> [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute|Kaiser Wilhelm Inst.]]</br>[[University of Leiden|Univ. of Leiden]]</br>[[Institute for Advanced Study|Inst. for Advanced Study]]
-|célèbre pour = +| alma_mater = [[ETH Zurich]]
-|distinction = [[Prix Nobel de physique]] (1921)<br/>[[Médaille Copley]] (1925)<br/>[[Médaille Max Planck]] (1929)+| doctoral_advisor = [[Alfred Kleiner]]
-|notes =+| known_for = [[General relativity]]</br>[[Special relativity]]</br>[[Brownian motion]]</br>[[Photoelectric effect]]</br>[[Mass-energy equivalence]]</br>[[Einstein field equations]]</br>[[classical unified field theories|Unified Field Theory]]</br> [[Bose–Einstein statistics]]</br> [[EPR paradox]]
 +| prizes = [[Image:Nobel prize medal.svg|20px]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1921)</br>[[Copley Medal]] (1925)</br>[[Max Planck medal]] (1929)
 +| signature = Albert Einstein signature.png
}} }}
 +'''Albert Einstein''' ([[German language|German]]: {{IPA2|ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n}} {{audio|Albert_Einstein_german.ogg|(Audio file)}}; [[English language|English]]: {{IPAEng|ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn}}) ([[March 14]], [[1879]] – [[April 18]], [[1955]]) was a [[Germany|German]]-born [[theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]]. He is best known for his [[theory of relativity]] and specifically [[mass-energy equivalence]], <math>E = m c^2</math>. Einstein received the [[1921]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the [[photoelectric effect]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921|accessdate=2007-03-06|author=Nobel Foundation|authorlink=Nobel Foundation}}</ref>
-'''Albert Einstein''' ({{Date|14|mars|1879}} à [[Ulm]], [[Württemberg]], [[Allemagne]] - {{Date|18|avril|1955}} à [[Princeton (New Jersey)|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]], [[États-Unis]]) était un [[physicien]] [[Allemagne|allemand]], puis [[apatride]] ([[1896]]), [[suisse]] ([[1899]]), et enfin [[Suisse|helvético]]-[[États-Unis|américain]] ([[1940]]).+Einstein's many contributions to [[physics]] include his [[special theory of relativity]], which reconciled [[mechanics]] with [[electromagnetism]], and his [[general theory of relativity]], which extended the [[principle of relativity]] to non-uniform motion, creating a new theory of [[gravitation]]. His other contributions include [[physical cosmology|relativistic cosmology]], [[capillarity|capillary action]], [[critical opalescence]], [[classical physics|classical problems]] of [[statistical mechanics]] and their application to [[Quantum mechanics|quantum theory]], an explanation of the [[Brownian motion|Brownian movement]] of [[molecule]]s, [[transition rule|atomic transition]] [[probability|probabilities]], the quantum theory of a [[monatomic gas]], [[thermodynamics|thermal]] properties of [[light]] with low [[radiation]] density (which laid the foundation for the [[photon]] theory), a theory of radiation including [[stimulated emission]], the conception of a [[classical unified field theories|unified field theory]], and the geometrization of physics.
-Il a publié la [[théorie de la relativité]] [[relativité restreinte|restreinte]] en [[1905]] et une théorie de la gravité dite [[relativité générale]] en [[1915]]. Il a largement contribué au développement de la [[mécanique quantique]] et de la [[cosmologie]]. Il a reçu le [[prix Nobel de physique]] en [[1921]] pour son explication de l'[[effet photoélectrique]]. Son travail est notamment connu pour l'équation [[E=mc²]] qui quantifie l'[[énergie]] disponible dans la matière.+[[Works by Albert Einstein]] include more than fifty scientific papers and also non-scientific books.<ref>These include: ''About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein'' (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by [[Sigmund Freud]]), ''The World As I See It'' (1934), ''Out of My Later Years'' (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, ''[[The Evolution of Physics]]'' (1938, co-authored by [[Leopold Infeld]]).</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html|title=Albert Einstein - Biography|accessdate=2007-03-07|author=Nobel Foundation|authorlink=Nobel Foundation|work=from Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967}}</ref> In 1999 Einstein was named [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] magazine's "[[Person of the Century]]", and a poll of prominent physicists named him the greatest physicist of all time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/851|title=Physics: past, present, future|accessdate=2007-11-27|author=Matin Durrani|authorlink=Physics World|work=Physics World, 1999-12-06}}</ref> In [[popular culture]] the name "Einstein" has become synonymous with [[genius]].
-== Biographie ==+==Youth and schooling==
-Le [[8 août]] [[1876]], Hermann Einstein (* [[30 août]] [[1847]] à Buchau; † [[10 octobre]] [[1902]] à [[Milan]]) épouse Pauline Koch. Trois ans plus tard, le [[14 mars]] [[1879]], Albert, leur premier enfant, naît dans leur appartement à [[Ulm]] en [[Allemagne]]. Le jeune Albert fait deux découvertes : la [[boussole]] à cinq ans et la rigueur scientifique dans un livre, ''La Petite Bible de la [[géométrie]]'', à treize ans. Einstein restera fidèle à ses origines juives ; par ailleurs, il s'impliquera dans la cause sioniste à partir de son voyage aux États-Unis en avril 1921, destiné notamment à la collecte de fonds au profit du futur État d'[[Israël]].+Albert Einstein was born into a [[Jewish]] family in [[Ulm]], [[Württemberg]], [[Germany]] on [[March 14]], [[1879]]. His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to [[Munich]], where his father and his uncle founded a company, Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie that manufactured electrical equipment, providing the first lighting for the [[Oktoberfest]] and cabling for the Munich suburb of [[Schwabing]].
-Il fait ses études primaires et secondaires à la ''Hochschule d'Aargau'' en Suisse, où il obtient son diplôme le [[30 septembre]] [[1896]]. Il a d'excellents résultats en [[mathématiques]], mais refuse de s'instruire en [[biologie]] et en [[sciences humaines]], car il ne voit pas l'intérêt d'apprendre des disciplines que l'on retrouve partout dans les livres. Il considère la science comme le fruit de la [[Raison|raison humaine]] et de la réflexion. Il demande à son père de lui donner la nationalité [[suisse]] afin de rejoindre sa famille émigrée à [[Milan]] en [[Italie]].+The Einsteins were not observant of Jewish religious practices, and Albert attended a [[Catholic school|Catholic elementary school]]. Although Albert had early [[language delay|speech difficulties]], he was a top student in elementary school.<ref>{{Citation | last = Rosenkranz | first = Ze'ev | year = 2005 | title = Albert Einstein — Derrière l'image | page = 29 | publisher = Editions NZZ, Zürich | id = ISBN 3-03823-182-7 }}</ref><ref>[[Thomas Sowell]] used Einstein's name for a book on such children. {{cite book | first = Thomas | last = Sowell | title = ''The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk Late'' | pages = 89–150 | publisher = Basic Books | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-465-08140-1 }}</ref>
-Il entre à l'[[École polytechnique fédérale de Zurich]] (ETH) en [[1896]]. Il s'y lie d'amitié avec le mathématicien [[Marcel Grossmann]], qui l'aidera plus tard quand il sera aux prises avec les [[Géométrie non euclidienne|géométries non-euclidiennes]]. Il y rencontre aussi [[Mileva Einstein|Mileva Maric]], sa première épouse. Il obtient son diplôme en [[1900]]. Il lit beaucoup : pendant cette époque, il approfondit presque exhaustivement d'excellents livres de référence, comme ceux de [[Ludwig Boltzmann|Boltzmann]], de [[Helmholtz]] et de [[Walther Hermann Nernst|Nernst]]. Il a comme lecture aussi la ''Mécanique'' de [[Ernst Mach]]. Selon plusieurs biographies, de [[1900]] à [[1902]] sera un temps de précarité pour Einstein qui postulera à de nombreux postes sans être accepté. La misère d'Einstein préoccupa énormément son père qui essaya en vain de l'aider à trouver un emploi. Albert se résigna à oublier l'université pour chercher un travail administratif.+[[Image:Eins1.jpg|thumb|left|200px| Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14), taken before the family moved to Italy]]
 +When Albert was five, his father showed him a pocket [[compass]]. Albert realized that something in empty space was moving the needle and later stated that this experience made "a deep and lasting impression".<ref>{{cite book | first =P. A. | last = Schilpp (Ed.) | title = Albert Einstein - Autobiographical Notes| pages = 8–9 | publisher = Open Court | year = 1979}}</ref> At his mother's insistence, he took [[violin]] lessons starting at age six, and although he disliked them and eventually quit, he later took great pleasure in [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart's]] [[violin sonata]]s. As he grew, Albert built [[model (physical)|models]] and [[machine|mechanical devices]] for fun, and began to show a talent for mathematics.
-En [[1902]], il est embauché à l'Office des brevets de [[Berne (ville)|Berne]], ce qui lui permet de vivre correctement tout en travaillant ses théories d'arrache-pied. Fin 1902 naît Lieserl, fille de Mileva et Albert. Les historiens n'ont découvert l'existence de cette fille qu'en 1986 (quand des lettres échangées entre Albert et Maric furent découvertes). On ignore ce qu'est devenue Lieserl, la thèse la plus courante étant une mort en bas âge.<ref>Michele Zackheim, ''Einstein's Daughter: the Search for Lieserl''</ref> Albert et Maric se marient en [[1903]], après la mort du père de ce dernier. En [[1904]], Hans-Albert naît. Dans les années 1905-1909, il publie quatre articles qui ouvrent de nouvelles voies dans la recherche ([[physique nucléaire]], [[mécanique céleste]]) Quatre ans après ces articles, il est reconnu par ses pairs. Les offres d'emplois se multiplient. Eduard naît en [[1910]] et en 1913, Albert est nommé à l'Académie des sciences de Prusse. Cela implique qu'il a la citoyenneté prussienne, en plus de la suisse.+In 1889, family friend Max Talmud (later: Talmey), a medical student,<ref name=HarvChemAE>Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student," Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA, page 3, web: [http://www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF]: about Max Talmud visited on Thursdays for 6 years.</ref> introduced the ten-year-old Albert to key science, mathematics, and philosophy texts, including [[Immanuel Kant|Kant's]] ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' and [[Euclid]]'s ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'' (Einstein called it the "holy little geometry book").<ref name=HarvChemAE/> From Euclid, Albert began to understand [[deductive reasoning]] (integral to [[theoretical physics]]), and by the age of twelve, he learned [[Euclidean geometry]] from a school booklet. Soon thereafter he began to investigate [[calculus]].
-En [[1914]], il déménage en Allemagne et habite à [[Berlin]] de nombreuses années, et les propositions de travail allemandes lui permettent de se consacrer entièrement à son travail de recherche. À ce moment, Mileva et Albert se séparent, et ce dernier commence à fréquenter une cousine berlinoise, Elsa. Un peu avant la [[Première Guerre mondiale]], il clame ses opinions pacifistes. La situation s'assombrit en Allemagne dans les années [[1920]] ; on le traîne dans la boue comme [[Juif]] et [[pacifiste]]. Albert voit sa vie menacée.+In his early teens, Albert attended the new and progressive [[Luitpold Gymnasium]]. His father intended for him to pursue [[electrical engineering]], but Albert clashed with authorities and resented the school regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict [[rote learning]].
-En [[1933]], il apprend que sa maison de Berlin a été pillée par des bandes [[nazisme|nazies]]. Peu après, [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] arrive au pouvoir. Einstein décide de s'exiler. Son fils Eduard est [[Schizophrénie|schizophrène]] et passera sa vie dans une clinique suisse.+In 1894, when Einstein was fifteen, his father's business failed, and the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to [[Milan]] and then, after a few months, to [[Pavia]]. During this time, Albert wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of [[aether theories|Aether]] in [[magnetic field|Magnetic Fields]]".<ref>{{cite web
 + | last =Mehra
 + | first =Jagdish
 + | authorlink =
 + | coauthors =
 + | title =Albert Einstein's first paper
 + | work =
 + | publisher =
 + | date =
 + | url =http://www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf
 + | accessdate = 2007-03-04}}
 +</ref>
 +Albert had been left behind in Munich to finish high school, but in the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.
-Einstein meurt le [[18 avril]] [[1955]] d'une [[rupture d'anévrisme]], son cerveau est hypertrophié à gauche. On éparpillera ses cendres dans un lieu tenu secret, conformément à son testament mais, en dépit de ses dernières volontés, son cerveau et ses yeux sont préservés par le médecin légiste qui a fait son [[autopsie]].+Rather than completing high school, Albert decided to apply directly to the [[ETH Zurich]], the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in [[Zurich]], Switzerland. Without a school certificate, he was required to take an entrance examination, which he did not pass, although he got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics. Einstein wrote that it was in that same year, at age 16, that he first performed his famous [[thought experiment]], visualizing traveling alongside a beam of light {{Harv|Einstein|1979}}.
-== Premières publications (1902-1909) ==+The Einsteins sent Albert to [[Aarau]], Switzerland to finish secondary school. While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with the family's daughter, Sofia Marie-Jeanne Amanda Winteler, called "Marie". (Albert's sister, Maja, his confidant, later married Paul Winteler.)<ref>Ibid.</ref> In Aarau, Albert studied [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell's]] [[electromagnetic theory]]. In 1896, he graduated at age 17, renounced his German citizenship to avoid military service (with his father's approval), and finally enrolled in the mathematics program at ETH. On [[February 21]], [[1901]], he gained Swiss citizenship, which he never revoked.<ref>{{cite web | title= Einstein's nationalities at einstein-website.de | url=http://www.einstein-website.de/z_information/variousthings.html#national | accessmonthday=4 October | accessyear=2006 }}</ref> Marie moved to [[Olsberg, Switzerland]] for a teaching post.
-{{Relativité}}+
-=== L'''annus mirabilis'' ===+
-[[1905]] est l'''année miracle'' pour Einstein, celle où sont publiés quatre de ses articles dans la revue ''[[Annalen der Physik]]'' (d'abord envoyés à [[Conrad Habicht]]) :+In 1896, Einstein's future wife, [[Mileva Marić]], also enrolled at ETH, as the only woman studying mathematics. During the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance. Einstein's mother objected because she thought Marić "too old", not Jewish, and "physically defective".<ref>{{Citation | author = Oregon Public Broadcasting | year = 2003 | url = http://www.pbs.org/opb/einsteinswife/ | title = Einstein's Wife: The Life of Mileva Maric Einstein | publisher =Public Broadcasting Service | access-date = 2006-11-8}} This web site, companion to the controversial Geraldine Hilton documentary of the same name, is currently under review for historical accuracy. (See {{Citation | last=Getler | first=Michael | date=December 15, 2006 | journal=PBS Ombudsman | title=Einstein’s Wife: The Relative Motion of ‘Facts’ | url=http://www.pbs.org/ombudsman/2006/12/einsteins_wife_the_relative_motion_of_facts.html | access-date=2007-03-25}}.)</ref> Einstein and Marić had a daughter, [[Lieserl Einstein]], born in early 1902.<ref>This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Marić. Lieserl is first mentioned in a letter from Einstein to Marić (who was abroad at the time of Lieserl's birth) dated February 4, 1902 (<em>Collected papers</em> Vol. 1, document 134).</ref> Her fate is unknown.
-* Le premier, publié en mars, expose un point de vue révolutionnaire sur la [[Dualité onde-particule|nature corpusculaire de la lumière]], par l'étude de l'[[effet photoélectrique]]. Einstein l'a intitulé : ''Sur un point de vue heuristique concernant la production et la transformation de la lumière''. Il y relate ses recherches sur l'origine des émissions de particules, en se basant sur les travaux de [[Max Planck|Planck]] qui avait, en [[1900]], établi une formule d'un rayonnement quantifié, c'est-à-dire discontinu. Planck avait été en fait contraint d'aborder le rayonnement lumineux émis par un corps chaud d'une manière qui le déconcertait : pour mettre en adéquation sa formule et les résultats expérimentaux, il lui avait fallu supposer que le courant de particules se divisait en blocs d'énergie, qu'il appela [[Théorie des quanta|quanta]]. Bien qu'il pensât que ces quanta n'avaient pas de véritable existence, sa théorie semblait prometteuse et plusieurs physiciens y travaillèrent. Einstein réinvestit les résultats de Planck pour étudier l'effet photoélectrique, et il conclut en énonçant que la [[lumière]] se comportait à la fois comme une [[onde]] et à la fois comme un flux de [[Physique des particules|particules]]. Il mit alors fin à un débat vieux de plus d'un siècle sur la nature de la lumière et ouvrit la voie à des recherches fondamentales. L'effet photoélectrique a donc fourni une confirmation simple de l'hypothèse des quanta de [[Max Planck]]. En 1920, les quanta furent appelés les [[photons]].+Einstein graduated in 1900 from ETH with a degree in physics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssqq.com/archive/alberteinstein.htm|title=A Brief Biography of Albert Einstein|month=April|year=2005|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> That same year, Einstein's friend [[Michele Besso]] introduced him to the work of [[Ernst Mach]]. The next year, Einstein published a paper in the prestigious ''[[Annalen der Physik]]'' on the [[capillary action|capillary forces]] of a straw {{Harv|Einstein|1901}}.
-* Deux mois plus tard, en mai, Einstein fait publier un deuxième article sur le [[mouvement brownien]]. Il expliquait ce mouvement par une entorse complète au principe d'[[entropie]] tel qu'énoncé à la suite des travaux de [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] sur les forces mécaniques : selon lui, les [[molécule]]s tiraient leur [[énergie cinétique]] de la [[chaleur]]. Cet article est encore plus fondamental du fait qu'il donnait une preuve théorique (vérifiée expérimentalement par [[Jean Perrin]] en 1912) de l'existence des [[atome]]s et des molécules. Le mouvement brownien a été expliqué au même moment qu'Einstein par [[Marian Smoluchowski]], et aussi par [[Louis Bachelier]] en 1900.+==Patent office==
 +[[Image:einsteinhaus4.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The 'Einsteinhaus' in [[Berne]] where Einstein lived with Mileva on the first floor during his ''Annus Mirabilis'']]
 +Following graduation, Einstein could not find a teaching post. After almost two years of searching, a former classmate's father helped him get a job in [[Bern]], at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property,<ref>Now the {{cite web | title=Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property | url=http://www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1.shtm|accessmonthday=16 October |accessyear= 2006 }}. See also their {{cite web | title=FAQ about Einstein and the Institute|url=http://www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1094.shtm}}</ref> the patent office, as an assistant [[patent examiner|examiner]]. His responsibility was evaluating [[patent application]]s for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office was made permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".<ref name="GalisonClocks">[[Peter Galison]], "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time" ''Critical Inquiry'' 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 355–389.</ref>
-* Le troisième article est plus important, car il représente la rupture intuitive d'Einstein avec la [[Lois du mouvement de Newton|physique newtonienne]]. Dans celui ''Sur l'électrodynamique des corps en mouvement'', le physicien s'attaque au [[postulat]] d'un espace et d'un temps absolus, tels que définis par la mécanique de Newton, et à l'existence de l'[[Éther (physique)|éther]], milieu interstellaire inerte qui devait soutenir la lumière comme l'[[eau]] ou l'[[air]] soutiennent les ondes sonores dans leurs déplacements. Cet article, publié en juin, amène à deux conclusions : l'éther n'''existe'' pas, et le [[espace-temps|temps et l'espace]] ''sont'' relatifs. Le nouvel ''absolu'' qu'Einstein édifie est maintenant détaché de la nature quantitative de ces deux notions — l'espace et le temps, mais à la conservation de leur relation à travers les différents référentiels d'études. Les conséquences de cette vision révolutionnaire de la physique, qui découle de l'idée qu'Einstein avait de la manière dont les lois physiques devaient contraindre l'univers, ont bousculé tant la physique théorique que ses applications pratiques. L'apport exact d'Einstein par rapport à [[Henri Poincaré]] et quelques autres physiciens est aujourd'hui assez disputé (voir [[Controverse sur la paternité de la relativité]]).+Einstein's college friend, Michele Besso, also worked at the patent office. With friends they met in Bern, they formed a weekly discussion club on science and philosophy, jokingly named "The [[Olympia Academy]]". Their readings included [[Henri Poincaré|Poincaré]], [[Ernst Mach|Mach]] and [[David Hume|Hume]], who influenced Einstein's scientific and philosophical outlook.<ref name="GalisonClocksMaps">{{cite book
 + | last = Galison
 + | first = Peter
 + | authorlink = Peter Galison
 + | title = Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time
 + | publisher = W.W. Norton
 + | location = New York
 + | year = 2003
 + | isbn = 0393020010 }}</ref>
-* Le dernier article, publié en septembre, donne au titre ''L'inertie d'un corps dépend-elle de son contenu en énergie ?'' une réponse célèbre : la formule d'équivalence masse-énergie. C'est un résultat de la toute nouvelle [[relativité restreinte]], qui sera d'une importance capitale pour un nombre de champs d'études insoupçonnés alors : physique nucléaire, mécanique céleste, jusqu'aux [[arme nucléaire|armes]] et [[centrale nucléaire|centrales nucléaires]].+While this period at the patent office has often been cited as a waste of Einstein's talents,<ref>See, for example, the discussion in the "Moonlighting in the Patent Office" section of Gary F. Moring, ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding Einstein'' (Alpha Books, 2004): 7.</ref> or as a temporary job with no connection to his interests in physics,<ref>E.g. {{Citation | last = Pais | first = Abraham | author-link = Abraham Pais | year = 1982 | title = Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein | publisher = Oxford University Press | page = 17 | id = ISBN 0-19-520438-7 }}</ref> the historian of science [[Peter Galison]] has argued that Einstein's work there was connected to his later interests. Much of that work related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time: two technical problems of the day that show up conspicuously in the [[thought experiments]] that led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.<ref name="GalisonClocks"/><ref name="GalisonClocksMaps"/>
-Durant cette période, il fonde avec [[Maurice Solovine]] (qui traduira ses œuvres en français) et [[Conrad Habicht]] l'Académie Olympia, cercle de discussion se réunissant au 49, Kramgasse, et organisant des balades en montagne.+Einstein married [[Mileva Marić]] on [[January 6]], [[1903]], and their relationship was, for a time, a personal and intellectual partnership. In a letter to her, Einstein wrote of Mileva as "a creature who is my equal and who is as strong and independent as I am."<ref>Letter Einstein to Marić on October 3, 1900 (<em>Collected Papers</em> Vol. 1, document 79).</ref> There has been debate about whether Marić influenced Einstein's work; most historians do not think she made major contributions, however.<ref>{{cite web | title= Arguing about Einstein's wife (April 2004) - Physics World - PhysicsWeb (See above) | url= http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/17/4/2 | accessmonthday=21 November | accessyear=2005 |author=Alberto A Martínez }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esterson.org/milevamaric.htm |title=Mileva Marić: Einstein’s Wife |accessdate=2007-02-23 |author=Allen Esterson}}
 +</ref><ref>{{cite web
 +|url=http://philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf |title=“Albert Einstein and Mileva Maric. A Collaboration That Failed to Develop” in: ''Creative Couples in the Sciences'', H. M. Pycior et al. (ed) |accessdate=2007-02-23 |author=John Stachel}}</ref> On [[May 14]], [[1904]], Albert and Mileva's first son, [[Hans Albert Einstein]], was born. Their second son, [[Eduard Einstein]], was born on [[July 28]], [[1910]].
-== Années de reconnaissance (1910-1935) ==+==''Annus Mirabilis''==
 +{{main|Annus Mirabilis Papers}}
 +[[Image:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|thumbnail|right|150px| Albert Einstein, 1905]]
 +In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, Einstein had four papers published in the ''[[Annalen der Physik]]'', the leading German physics journal. These are the papers that history has come to call the ''[[Annus Mirabilis Papers]]'':
 +*His paper on the particulate nature of light put forward the idea that certain experimental results, notably the [[photoelectric effect]], could be simply understood from the postulate that light interacts with matter as discrete "packets" ([[quanta]]) of energy, an idea that had been introduced by [[Max Planck]] in 1900 as a purely mathematical manipulation, and which seemed to contradict contemporary wave theories of light. This was the only work of Einstein's that he himself pronounced as "revolutionary". {{harv|Einstein|1905a}}
 +*His paper on [[Brownian motion]] explained the random movement of very small objects as direct evidence of molecular action, thus supporting the [[atomic theory]]. {{harv|Einstein|1905c}}
 +*His paper on the [[electrodynamics]] of moving bodies introduced the radical theory of [[special relativity]], which showed that the observed independence of the [[speed of light]] on the observer's state of motion required fundamental changes to the [[Relativity of simultaneity|notion of simultaneity]]. Consequences of this include the [[Spacetime|time-space frame]] of a moving body [[Time dilation|slowing down]] and [[Length contraction|contracting]] (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a [[luminiferous aether]]—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. {{harv|Einstein|1905d}}
 +*In his paper on the [[mass-energy equivalence|equivalence of matter and energy]] (previously considered to be distinct concepts), Einstein deduced from his equations of special relativity what later became the well known expression: <math>E = m c^2</math>, suggesting that tiny amounts of mass could be [[mass-energy equivalence|converted]] into huge amounts of energy. {{harv|Einstein|1905e}}
-[[Image:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein2 by Ehrenfest.jpg|thumb|Albert Einstein et [[Niels Bohr]], Congrès Solvay de [[1930]]]]+All four papers are today recognized as tremendous achievements—and hence 1905 is known as Einstein's "[[Annus mirabilis|Wonderful Year]]". At the time, however, they were not noticed by most physicists as being important, and many of those who did notice them rejected them outright. Some of this work—such as the theory of light quanta—remained controversial for years.<ref>On the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in Thomas F. Glick, ed., ''The Comparative Reception of Relativity'' (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1987), ISBN 9027724989.</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Pais | first = Abraham | author-link = Abraham Pais | year = 1982 | title = Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = 382–386 | id = ISBN 0-19-520438-7 }}</ref>
-Quatre ans après ces articles, il est reconnu par ses pairs. Les offres de travail se multiplient. Son fils Eduard naît en [[1910]].+At the age of 26, having studied under [[Alfred Kleiner]], Professor of Experimental Physics, Einstein was awarded a [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] by the [[University of Zurich]]. His dissertation was entitled "A new determination of molecular dimensions." {{harv|Einstein|1905b}}
-En [[1911]], il est invité au premier [[Congrès Solvay]], en Belgique, qui rassemble les scientifiques les plus connus. Il y rencontre entre autres [[Marie Curie]], [[Max Planck]] et [[Paul Langevin]].+==Light and general relativity==
 +{{seealso|History of general relativity|Relativity priority dispute}}
 +[[Image:1919 eclipse positive.jpg|left|thumb|180px|One of the 1919 eclipse photographs taken during [[Arthur Eddington]]'s expedition, which [[confirmation (epistemology)|confirmed]] Einstein's predictions of the gravitational bending of light.]]
-Il est nommé à l’Académie des sciences de Prusse en [[1913]].+In 1906, the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class, but he was not giving up on academia. In 1908, he became a [[privatdozent]] at the [[University of Bern]].<ref>{{Citation | last = Pais | first = Abraham | author-link = Abraham Pais | year = 1982 | title = Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein | publisher = Oxford University Press | page = 522 | id = ISBN 0-19-520438-7 }}</ref> In 1910, he wrote a paper on [[critical opalescence]] that described the cumulative effect of light scattered by individual molecules in the atmosphere, i.e. [[Diffuse sky radiation|why the sky is blue]].<ref name="Levenson">Levenson, Thomas. "[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/ Einstein's Big Idea]." ''[[Public Broadcasting Service]].'' 2005. Retrieved on [[February 25]], [[2006]].</ref>
-En [[1914]], il déménage en Allemagne et habite à [[Berlin]] de nombreuses années, et les propositions de travail allemandes lui permettent de se consacrer tout entier à son travail de recherche. À ce moment, Mileva et Albert se séparent, et ce dernier commence à fréquenter une cousine berlinoise, Elsa. Il clame aux abords de la Première Guerre mondiale ses opinions pacifistes.+During 1909, Einstein published "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("[[s:The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation|The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation]]"), on the [[quantization (physics)|quantization]] of light. In this and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that [[Max Planck]]'s [[energy]] [[quanta]] must have well-defined [[momentum|momenta]] and act in some respects as independent, [[point particle|point-like particles]]. This paper introduced the ''[[photon]]'' concept (although the term itself was introduced by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1926) and inspired the notion of [[wave–particle duality]] in [[quantum mechanics]].
-La ville de Berlin lui avait promis le cadeau d’une maison. Avec le temps, ce ne sera finalement qu’un terrain sur lequel il dut faire construire de sa poche. Il choisit un endroit calme à Caputh, près du lac de Havelsee, où il faisait souvent de la voile.+In 1911, Einstein became an [[associate professor]] at the [[University of Zurich]]. However, shortly afterward, he accepted a full professorship at the [[Charles University in Prague|Charles University of Prague]]. While in [[Prague]], Einstein published a paper about the effects of gravity on light, specifically the [[gravitational redshift]] and the gravitational deflection of light. The paper appealed to astronomers to find ways of detecting the deflection during a [[solar eclipse]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Einstein | first=Albert | title=On the Influence of Gravity on the Propagation of Light | journal=Annalen der Physik | year=1911 | volume=35 | pages=898–908}} (also in <em>Collected Papers</em> Vol. 3, document 23)</ref> German astronomer [[Erwin Freundlich]] publicized Einstein's challenge to scientists around the world.<ref name="Crelinston_1">Crelinsten, Jeffrey. "[http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/8165.html Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity]." ''[[Princeton University Press]].'' 2006. Retrieved on [[March 13]], [[2007]]. ISBN 9780691123103</ref>
-Dans un livre de [[1916]], il a publié sa théorie de la gravitation, connue aujourd’hui sous le nom de la [[relativité générale]]. La mise en place de cette théorie fut justifiée dans un "souci de cohérence scientifique"<ref>Alain Connes, Triangle de Pensée, Éditions Odile Jacob, p.107.</ref>.+In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his [[alma mater]], the [[ETH]]. There he met mathematician [[Marcel Grossmann]] who introduced him to [[Riemannian geometry]], and at the recommendation of Italian mathematician [[Tullio Levi-Civita]], Einstein began exploring the usefulness of [[general covariance]] (essentially the use of [[tensor]]s) for his gravitational theory. Although for a while Einstein thought that there were problems with that approach, he later returned to it and by late 1915 had published his [[general theory of relativity]] in the form that is still used today {{Harv|Einstein|1915}}. This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of [[spacetime]] by matter, affecting the [[inertia]]l motion of other matter.
-La clé de voûte de la théorie est les « Équations du champ » qui décrivent le comportement du champ de gravitation (la métrique de l’espace-temps) en fonction du contenu énergétique et matériel. Pendant longtemps, on a prétendu que [[David Hilbert]] fut le premier à avoir trouvé ces équations (suite à des discussions avec Einstein toutefois)<ref>Des recherches historiques plus récentes par Leo Corry en 1997 ont démontré que dans la première version de l’article publié par Hilbert (antérieur à celui d’Einstein), les équations sont fausses. Hilbert parvint aux équations correctes qu’après publication de celles-ci par Einstein qui les obtint toutefois d’une manière différente de celle adoptée par Hilbert. Toutefois, l’article de Corry a été critiqué par le Prof. Friedwardt Winterberg en 2004 dans le journal Naturforsch, réaffirmant la thèse de l’antériorité de David Hilbert</ref>. La théorie de la relativité ainsi que ses ouvrages de [[1905]] et [[1916]] forment la base de la physique moderne. La relation entre Einstein et la physique quantique est très remarquable — d’un côté, certaines de ses théories sont la base de la physique quantique, en particulier son explication de l’effet photoélectrique, d’un autre côté, il a refusé beaucoup d’idées et d’interprétations de la [[mécanique quantique]] plus tard.+After many relocations, Mileva established a permanent home with the children in Zurich in 1914, just before the start of [[World War I]]. Einstein continued on alone to [[Berlin]], where he became a member of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]]. As part of the arrangements for his new position, he also became a professor at the [[University of Berlin]], although with a special clause freeing him from most teaching obligations. From 1914 to 1932 he was also director of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute]] for physics.<ref name="Kant">Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin." in Renn, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein - Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn, Jürgen. ''Wiley-VCH.'' 2005. pp. 166–169. ISBN = 3527405747</ref>
-En [[1927]], invité au cinquième [[Congrès Solvay]], il a de nombreuses conversations avec [[Niels Bohr]] à ce sujet. Il dit alors : « Gott würfelt nicht » (« Dieu ne joue pas aux dés ») pour marquer son opposition à l’interprétation [[probabilités|probabiliste]] de la physique quantique, ce à quoi [[Niels Bohr]] répondit « Qui êtes-vous Albert Einstein pour dire à Dieu ce qu’il doit faire ? ». Le paradoxe quantique qu’il arrivera à préciser plus tard avec Podolsky et Rosen à Princeton ([[paradoxe EPR]]) reste aujourd’hui très important.+During World War I, the speeches and writings of [[Central Powers]] scientists were available only to Central Powers academics, for [[national security]] reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and the United States through the efforts of the Austrian [[Paul Ehrenfest]] and physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner [[Hendrik Lorentz]] and [[Willem de Sitter]] of the [[Leiden University]]. After the war ended, Einstein maintained his relationship with the Leiden University, accepting a contract as an ''[[Professor#Netherlands|Extraordinary Professor]]''; he travelled to Holland regularly to lecture there between 1920 and 1930.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/einstein/einstein.html|title=Two friends in Leiden|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref>
-== Le génie célèbre ==+In 1917, Einstein published an article in ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'' that proposed the possibility of [[stimulated emission]], the physical process that makes possible the [[maser]] and the [[laser]] {{Harv|Einstein|1917b}}. He also published a paper introducing a new notion, a [[cosmological constant]], into the general theory of relativity in an attempt to model the behavior of the entire universe {{Harv|Einstein|1917a}}.
-[[Image:Albert Einstein photo 1921.jpg|left|thumb|Albert Einstein en [[1921]].]]+1917 was the year astronomers began taking Einstein up on his 1911 challenge from Prague. The [[Mount Wilson Observatory]] in California, U.S., published a solar [[spectroscopic]] analysis that showed no gravitational redshift.<ref>{{Citation | last =Crelinsten | first =Jeffrey | title =Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity | ISBN =978-0-691-12310-3 | publisher =Princeton University Press | pages = 103–108 | year =2006 | url =http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/8165.html | accessdate =2007-03-13 }}</ref> In 1918, the [[Lick Observatory]], also in California, announced that they too had disproven Einstein's prediction, although their findings were not published<ref>{{Citation | last =Crelinsten | first =Jeffrey | title =Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity | ISBN =978-0-691-12310-3 | publisher =Princeton University Press | pages = 114–119 | year =2006 | url =http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/8165.html | accessdate =2007-03-13 }}</ref>
-=== La vérification par l'éclipse ===+However, in May 1919, a team led by British astronomer [[Arthur Stanley Eddington]] claimed to have confirmed Einstein's prediction of [[gravitational lensing|gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun]] while photographing a solar eclipse in [[Sobral, Ceará| Sobral]] northern [[Brazil]] and [[Principe]].<ref name="Crelinston_1"/> On [[November 7]], [[1919]], leading British newspaper ''[[The Times]]'' printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".<ref name="Eddington">{{cite journal | last = Andrzej | first = Stasiak | year = 2003 | title = Myths in science | journal = EMBO reports | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 236 | issn = | pmid = | doi =10.1038/sj.embor.embor779 | id = | url = http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v4/n3/full/embor779.html | accessdate = 2007-03-31 }}</ref> In an interview Nobel laureate [[Max Born]] praised general relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about nature";<ref>{{cite news | title = The genius of space and time
 + | url = http://books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/scienceandnature/0,,1571826,00.html | publisher = The Guardian | date = September 17, 2005 | accessdate = 2007-03-31 }}</ref> fellow laureate [[Paul Dirac]] was quoted saying it was "probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".<ref name="schmidhuber">Schmidhuber, Jürgen. "[http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/einstein.html ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879–1955) and the 'Greatest Scientific Discovery Ever']." 2006. Retrieved on [[October 4]], [[2006]].</ref>
-Pour vérifier la relativité générale, une mesure de la déviation des rayons lumineux aux alentours d'une masse, lors d'une éclipse solaire est envisagée. La première expédition est programmée en [[1915]], mais est rendue impossible par la Première Guerre mondiale. En [[1919]], [[Arthur Eddington]] réalise la fameuse mesure. Il annonce que les résultats sont conformes à la théorie d'Einstein. Il apparaît bien plus tard qu'en raison du temps nuageux, la marge d'erreur était bien supérieure au phénomène à mesurer. [[Stephen Hawking]] explique dans ''Une Brève histoire du temps'' que ce genre de faux bon résultat est courant quand on sait à quoi s'attendre. Comme entre-temps, d'autres mesures avaient confirmé la déviation de la lumière, le prestige de la relativité générale n'en fut pas ébranlé.+In their excitement, the world media made Albert Einstein world-famous. Ironically, later examination of the photographs taken on the Eddington expedition showed that the experimental uncertainty was of about the same magnitude as the effect Eddington claimed to have demonstrated, and in 1962 a British expedition concluded that the method used was inherently unreliable.<ref name="Eddington"/> The deflection of light during a solar eclipse has, however, been more accurately measured (and confirmed) by later observations.<ref>See the table in MathPages [http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s6-03/6-03.htm Bending Light]</ref>
-Einstein part exposer sa théorie dans le monde entier, où on le célèbre. La situation s'assombrit en Allemagne dans les [[années 1920]]; il est traîné dans la boue en tant que juif, et voit sa sécurité menacée avec l'arrivée du nazisme dans la société.+There was some resentment toward the newcomer Einstein's fame in the scientific community, notably among German physicists, who later started the ''[[Deutsche Physik]]'' (German Physics) movement.<ref name="Hentschel">Hentschel, Klaus; Hentschel, Ann M. "Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources." ''Birkhaeuser Verlag.'' 1996. p. xxi. ISBN 3764353120</ref><ref>For a discussion of astronomers' attitudes and debates about relativity, see Jeffrey Crelinsten, Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity (Princeton University Press, 2006), esp. chapters 6, 9, 10 and 11.</ref>
-En [[1925]], il est lauréat de la [[médaille Copley]]. En [[1928]], il est nommé président de la Ligue des [[Droits de l'homme]]. En [[1932]], il apprend que sa maison de Berlin a été pillée par les bandes nazies. Peu après, [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] arrive au pouvoir. Il décide de ne plus mettre les pieds en Allemagne. Il travaille alors aux [[États-Unis]], notamment à l'[[Institute for Advanced Study]] de [[Princeton (New Jersey)|Princeton]]. En [[1935]], il est lauréat de la [[Médaille Franklin]].+Having lived apart for five years, Einstein and Mileva divorced on [[February 14]], [[1919]]. On [[June 2]] of that year, Einstein married [[Elsa Einstein|Elsa Löwenthal]], who had nursed him through an illness. Elsa was Albert's [[first cousin]] (maternally) and his [[second cousin]] (paternally). Together the Einsteins raised Margot and Ilse, Elsa's daughters from her first marriage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinelsa_content.html|title=Short life history: Elsa Einstein|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref>
-Il avertit le président [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|Franklin Roosevelt]] de la possible utilisation d'une bombe atomique. Il lui réécrira plus tard pour lui demander d'abandonner cette idée, mais deux bombes nucléaires seront utilisées contre le [[Japon]] en [[1945]].+==Nobel Prize==
 +[[Image:Albert Einstein photo 1921.jpg|thumb|left|160px|Einstein, 1921. Age 42.]]
 +In 1921 Einstein was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect: "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity &#91;which had&#93; been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles &#91;and&#93; also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time." {{Harv|Einstein|1923}} As per their divorce settlement, Einstein gave the Nobel prize money to his first wife, [[Mileva Marić]].
-Son fils Eduard est [[Schizophrénie|schizophrène]] et passera sa vie dans une clinique suisse.+Einstein traveled to [[New York City]] in the United States for the first time on [[April 2]], [[1921]]. When asked where he got his scientific ideas, Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an examination of physical reality and a search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations that apply in all instances and avoid contradicting each other. He also recommended theories with visualizable results {{Harv|Einstein|1954}}.<ref>See Albert Einstein, "Geometry and Experience," (1921), reprinted in ''Ideas and Opinions''.</ref>
-Einstein meurt le [[18 avril]] [[1955]] d'une rupture d'[[anévrisme]]. On éparpillera ses cendres dans un lieu tenu secret, mais on préserva son cerveau et ses yeux.+{{seealso|History of special relativity}}
-=== Einstein et la politique ===+==Unified field theory==
 +{{main|classical unified field theories}}
-En politique, Einstein était avant tout un pacifiste, même s'il put déconseiller l'[[objection de conscience]] à un jeune Européen qui lui écrivit dans les [[années 1930]], « pour la sauvegarde de son pays et de la civilisation ». Einstein est lié à beaucoup de causes pacifistes, car il accepta toujours de défendre une cause qu'il trouvait juste. Il répondit ainsi aux [[communisme|communistes]] que les peuples devaient s'occuper d'abord de pacifisme afin d'avoir les conditions nécessaires pour ensuite pouvoir faire du [[socialisme]]. Il prononcera cet [[wikt:apophtegme|apophtegme]] : « Si un homme peut éprouver quelque plaisir à défiler en rang aux sons d'une musique, je méprise cet homme… Il ne mérite pas un cerveau humain puisqu'une moelle épinière le satisfait. » (dans ''[[Comment je vois le monde]]'', publié à partir de 1934) faisant ainsi référence à l'armée, institution qu'il méprisait.+[[Image:Max-Planck-und-Albert-Einstein.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Max Planck]] presents Einstein with the inaugural [[Max Planck medal]], Berlin [[June 28]], [[1929]]]]
-En [[1913]], il est cosignataire d'une pétition pour la paix que trois savants allemands signeront. C'est le pendant du [[Manifeste des 93]] intellectuels allemands.+Einstein's research after general relativity consisted primarily of a long series of attempts to generalize his theory of gravitation in order to unify and simplify the fundamental [[physical law|laws of physics]], particularly gravitation and electromagnetism. In 1950, he described this "[[Unified Field Theory]]" in a ''[[Scientific American]]'' article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation" {{Harv|Einstein|1950}}.
-Einstein fut un supporter du [[sionisme]]. En 1920, il accompagne le leader sioniste [[Chaim Weizmann]] aux [[États-Unis]] dans une campagne de récolte de fonds. Il se rend également en [[Palestine mandataire]] dans le cadre de l'inauguration de l'[[université hébraïque de Jérusalem]]. Ses apparations donnent un prestique politique à la cause sioniste. Suite à une invitation à s'établir à Jérusalem, il écrit dans son carnet de voyage que « le coeur dit oui (...) mais la raison dit non ». Selon [[Tom Segev]], Einstein apprécie son voyage en Palestine et les honneurs qui lui sont faits. Il rapporte néanmoins un point noir quand voyant des Juifs prier devant le [[mur des lamentations]], Einstein commente qu'il s'agit de personnes collées au passé et faisant abstraction du présent.<ref>[[Tom Segev]], ''One Palestine Complete, Holt Paperbacks, pp.202-204.</ref>+Although he continued to be lauded for his work in theoretical physics, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his attempts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, he ignored some mainstream developments in physics (and vice versa), most notably the [[strong nuclear force|strong]] and [[weak nuclear force]]s, which were not well understood until many years after Einstein's death. Einstein's goal of unifying the laws of physics under a single model survives in the current drive for the [[grand unification theory]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00013319-39C7-1C74-9B81809EC588EF21 | title=''A Unified Physics by 2050?'' | accessdate=2007-10-04}}</ref>
-Il analysa bien l'évolution de la situation entre les deux guerres en [[Allemagne]]. Il eut d'assez bons mots, car il avait une vision très rationnelle des hommes : « Pour l'instant, je suis un savant allemand, mais si je viens à devenir une bête noire, je serai un juif suisse »). Il recevait des menaces de mort dès [[1922]]. De violentes attaques eurent lieu contre la [[théorie de la relativité]] en Allemagne (mais aussi en [[Russie]]). Par exemple, [[Philipp Lenard]], « chef de la physique aryenne ou allemande » attribuait à [[Friedrich Hasenöhrl]] la formule [[E=mc²]] pour en faire une création [[race aryenne|aryenne]].+==Collaboration and conflict==
-<ref>[http://www.slatersoft.com/EPFL/STS/HTML/node15.html] [http://ame.epfl.ch/biblio/schlatter1.pdf]</ref>. Einstein démissionna de l'académie de [[Prusse]] en [[1933]]. Il fut par contre exclu de celle de Bavière, qu'il ne put quitter volontairement à temps. Cette année-là, Einstein, en voyage à l'étranger, ne retourna pas en Allemagne, où le régime nazi avait pris le pouvoir en janvier. Après un séjour en Belgique, il déclina une proposition de la France de l'accueillir comme professeur au Collège de France, et partit aux États-Unis à Princeton.+===Bose–Einstein statistics===
 +In 1924, Einstein received a description of a [[statistical mechanics|statistical]] model from [[India]]n physicist [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] which showed that light could be understood as a gas. Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and Einstein submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the ''[[Zeitschrift für Physik]]''. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the [[Bose–Einstein condensate]] phenomenon that should appear at very low temperatures {{Harv|Einstein|1924}}. It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by [[Eric Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]] using [[ultracold atom|ultra-cooling]] equipment built at the [[NIST]]-[[JILA]] laboratory at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/n01-04.htm|title=Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics|date=2001-10-09|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> [[Bose–Einstein statistics]] are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of "[[boson]]s". Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the [[Leiden University]].<ref name="Instituut-Lorentz">"[http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz]." ''Instituut-Lorentz.'' 2005. Retrieved on [[November 21]], [[2005]].</ref>
-Le [[2 août]] [[1939]], il rédigea une lettre à [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] qui contribua à enclencher le [[projet Manhattan]]<ref>http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Begin/Einstein.shtml</ref>. En [[1945]], lorsqu'il comprend que les États-Unis vont réaliser la première bombe atomique de l'histoire, il prend l'initiative d'écrire une nouvelle fois à Roosevelt pour le prier de renoncer à cette arme<ref>http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/ManhattanProject/Einstein2.shtml</ref>. Après la guerre, Einstein milite pour un désarmement atomique mondial, jusqu'avant sa mort en [[1955]] où il confesse à [[Linus Pauling]] : « j'ai fait une grande erreur dans ma vie, quand j'ai signé cette lettre. »+===Schrödinger gas model===
-[[Image:Albert Einstein declares his opposition to the atomic bomb.jpg|thumb|right|Einstein déclarant son opposition à la bombe atomique en 1950.]]+Einstein suggested to [[Erwin Schrödinger]] an application of [[Max Planck]]'s idea of treating [[energy level]]s for a [[gas]] as a whole rather than for individual [[molecule]]s, and Schrödinger applied this in a paper using the [[Boltzmann distribution]] to derive the [[thermodynamics|thermodynamic]] properties of a [[semiclassical]] [[ideal gas]]. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.<ref>{{cite book | last=Moore | first=Walter | year=1989 | title=Schrödinger: Life and Thought | location=Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0-521-43767-9}}</ref>
-Einstein s'est exprimé sur ses convictions socialistes en [[1949]], soit en plein [[maccarthysme]], dans un essai intitulé « Pourquoi le [[Socialisme]] » (publié dans la [[Monthly Review]]<ref>[http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm ''Why Socialism?'', by Albert Einstein]</ref>). Sa correspondance révèle qu'il effectuait un rapprochement entre le maccarthysme et les évènements des [[années 1930]] en Allemagne. Il écrivit au juge chargé de l'affaire Rosenberg pour demander leur grâce, aida de nombreuses personnes qui voulaient immigrer aux États-Unis ; contacté par William Frauenglass, un professeur d'anglais de lycée suspecté de sympathies communistes, il rédigea un texte dénonçant ouvertement le maccarthysme et encourageant les intellectuels à résister à ce qu'il qualifie de « mal ». Le [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] (en fait son président, [[J. Edgar Hoover]]) a ouvert un dossier sur lui, disponible sur leur site<ref>http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/einstein.htm</ref>. [[Joseph McCarthy]] lui-même attaque Einstein au Congrès en le traitant « d'ennemi de l'Amérique ». On soupçonne sa secrétaire, Helen Dukas, d'espionnage pour Moscou. Les médias se déchaînent. Au milieu de ce lynchage organisé, [[Bertrand Russell]] prend sa défense. L'affaire a été classée en [[1954]], aucune preuve n'ayant été trouvée.+
-En décembre 1948, il co-signe une lettre condamnant le [[massacre de Deir Yassin]]<ref>[http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html New York Time, 4 decembre 1948]</ref>.+===Einstein refrigerator===
 +In 1926, Einstein and his former student [[Leó Szilárd]], a Hungarian physicist who later worked on the [[Manhattan Project]] and is credited with the discovery of the [[chain reaction]], co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the [[Einstein refrigerator]], revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat, not ice, as an input.<ref name="Goettling">Goettling, Gary. "[http://gtalumni.org/StayInformed/magazine/sum98/einsrefr.html Einstein's Refrigerator]." ''Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine.'' 1998. Retrieved on [[November 21]], [[2005]].</ref><ref>On November 11, 1930, {{US patent|1781541}} was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator.</ref>
-Il est désappointé par ce qu'il peut connaître de l'[[Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques|Union soviétique]]. Il lui apparaît que le principe du gouvernement des peuples par eux-mêmes, le fait de travailler pour eux-mêmes, lui semble plus propice à l'épanouissement individuel que celui de l'exploitation du grand nombre par une minorité. Par ailleurs, il a préfacé le Livre Noir, recueil de témoignages sur l'extermination des juifs par les nazis pendant la guerre dans la Russie Soviétique {{ISBN|2742706232}}.+===Bohr versus Einstein===
 +[[Image:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Einstein and [[Niels Bohr]]. Photo taken by [[Paul Ehrenfest]] during their visit to Leiden in December 1925.]]
-[[David Ben Gourion|Ben Gourion]] lui proposa en [[1952]] la présidence de l'État d'[[Israël]], qu'il refusa. L'ambassadeur raconte les raisons de son refus : « D'abord, si je connais les lois de l'univers, je ne connais presque rien aux êtres humains. De plus, il semble qu'un président d'Israël doit parfois signer des choses qu'il désapprouve, et personne ne peut imaginer que je puisse faire cela. » Il légua ses archives à l'[[Université hébraïque de Jérusalem|université de Jérusalem]].+In the 1920s, [[quantum mechanics]] developed into a more complete theory. Einstein was unhappy with the "[[Copenhagen interpretation]]" of quantum theory developed by [[Niels Bohr]] and [[Werner Heisenberg]], wherein quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with definite states resulting only upon interaction with [[Physics in the Classical Limit|classical systems]]. A public [[Einstein-Bohr debates|debate]] between Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting for many years (including during the [[Solvay Conference]]s). Einstein formulated [[thought experiment]]s against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by Bohr. In a 1926 letter to [[Max Born]], Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice." {{Harv|Einstein|1969}}.<ref>A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, ISBN 388682005X</ref>
-[[Image:Einstein oppenheimer.jpg|thumb|left|Einstein et [[Robert Oppenheimer]].]]+Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in collaboration with [[Boris Podolsky]] and [[Nathan Rosen]], noting that the theory seems to require [[non-local]] interactions; this is known as the [[EPR paradox]] {{Harv|Einstein|1935}}. The EPR experiment has since been performed, with results confirming quantum theory's predictions.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Aspect, Alain; Dalibard, Jean; Roger, Gérard | title= Experimental test of Bell's inequalities using time-varying analyzers | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=1982 | volume=49 | issue=25 | pages=1804-1807 }} The first of many experimental tests relating to EPR.</ref>
-Einstein fut somme toute un pacifiste à la philosophie extrêmement rationnelle, un peu contemplatif, un être un peu asocial qui aimait l'humanité. Il a constamment méprisé l'agitation humaine et a toujours préféré le calme. Pour connaître ses pensées sur la [[religion]] ou la [[guerre]], on peut lire ses citations.+Einstein's disagreement with Bohr revolved around the idea of scientific [[determinism]]. For this reason the repercussions of the [[Einstein-Bohr debates|Einstein-Bohr debate]] have found their way into philosophical discourse as well.
-Il a lutté pendant la [[Guerre froide]] en s'exprimant contre la [[course aux armements]], appelant, par exemple avec [[Bertrand Russell]] et [[Joseph Rotblat]], les scientifiques à plus de responsabilités, les gouvernements à un renoncement commun à leur prolifération et leur utilisation, et les peuples à chercher d'autres moyens d'obtenir la paix (création du [[Comité d'urgence des scientifiques atomistes]] en 1946, [[Manifeste Russell-Einstein]] en 1954). Il fut nommé directeur du Comité à l'Énergie atomique des Nations unies, mais démissionna quand il se rendit compte de son inutilité. Précisons qu'il ne participa pas à la construction de la [[Bombe A|bombe atomique]]. Il n'en eut pas même l'idée. Ce fut [[Robert Oppenheimer]] qui la dirigea.+{{seealso|Bohr-Einstein debates}}
-Il a toujours insisté sur la nécessité de créer un État mondial.+==Religious views==
 +The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on [[theological determinism]], and even whether or not he believed in God. In 1929, Einstein told Rabbi [[Herbert S. Goldstein]] "I believe in [[Baruch Spinoza#Philosophy|Spinoza's God]], who reveals Himself in the lawful harmony of the world, not in a God Who concerns Himself with the fate and the doings of mankind."<ref>{{Citation | last = Brian | first = Dennis | year = 1996 | title = Einstein: A Life | page = 127 | publisher = New York: John Wiley & Sons | id = ISBN 0-471-11459-6 }}</ref> In 1950, in a letter to M. Berkowitz, Einstein stated that "My position concerning God is that of an agnostic. I am convinced that a vivid consciousness of the primary importance of moral principles for the betterment and ennoblement of life does not need the idea of a law-giver, especially a law-giver who works on the basis of reward and punishment."<ref>Albert Einstein in a letter to M. Berkowitz, [[October 25]], [[1950]]; Einstein Archive 59-215; from Alice Calaprice, ed., The Expanded Quotable Einstein, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 216.</ref>
-=== Vie sociale ===+Einstein defined his religious views in a letter he wrote in response to those who claimed that he worshipped a Judeo-Christian god: "It was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious convictions, a lie which is being systematically repeated. I do not believe in a [[personal God]] and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly. If something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for the structure of the world so far as our science can reveal it."<ref>{{cite web|title=Albert Einstein (1879-1955)|url=http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/quotes_einstein.html|accessdate=2007-05-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Helen Dukas and Banesh Hoffman (eds)|title=Albert Einstein, The Human Side|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1981|pages=43}}</ref>
-Einstein a eu des relations avec quantité de personnalités scientifiques, politiques et artistiques. Sa correspondance était très riche.+By his own definition, Einstein was a deeply religious person: "A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, of the manifestations of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which are only accessible to our reason in their most elementary forms--it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute the truly religious attitude; in this sense, and in this alone, I am a deeply religious man."<ref>{{cite book |title=The World as I See It|last=Einstein|first=Albert|year=1949|publisher=Philosophical Library|publication-place=New York|isbn=0806527900|url=http://www.einsteinandreligion.com/worldsee2.html|accessdate=2007-10-14}}</ref> He published a paper in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 1940 entitled ''Science and Religion'' which gave his views on the subject.<ref name="Nature146">{{cite journal|last=Einstein|first=A.|year=1940|title=Science and religion|journal=[[Nature]]|volume=146|issue=|pages=605–607}}</ref> In this he says that: "a person who is religiously enlightened appears to me to be one who has, to the best of his ability, liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with thoughts, feelings and aspirations to which he clings because of their super-personal value&nbsp;... regardless of whether any attempt is made to unite this content with a Divine Being, for otherwise it would not be possible to count [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] and [[Spinoza]] as religious personalities. Accordingly a religious person is devout in the sense that he has no doubt of the significance of those super-personal objects and goals which neither require nor are capable of rational foundation&nbsp;... In this sense religion is the age-old endeavour of mankind to become clearly and completely conscious of these values and goals, and constantly to strengthen their effects." He argues that conflicts between science and religion "have all sprung from fatal errors." However "even though the realms of religion and science in themselves are clearly marked off from each other" there are "strong reciprocal relationships and dependencies"&nbsp;... "science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind&nbsp;... a legitimate conflict between science and religion cannot exist." However he makes it clear that he does not believe in a personal God, and suggests that "neither the rule of human nor Divine Will exists as an independent cause of natural events. To be sure, the doctrine of a personal God interfering with natural events could never be ''refuted''&nbsp;... by science, for &#91;it&#93; can always take refuge in those domains in which scientific knowledge has not yet been able to set foot." {{Harv|Einstein|1940|pp=605–607}}
-Ses liaisons avec les femmes étaient sombres. Il trompait souvent Mileva, et fut très dur avec Elsa. Ils faisaient chambre à part et il pouvait lui interdire son bureau, se faisant presque servir (« Je traitais ma femme comme une employée, mais une employée que je ne pouvais pas congédier »). {{Référence nécessaire}}+His friend [[Max Jammer]] explored Einstein's views on religion thoroughly in the 1999 book ''Einstein and Religion: Physics and Theology.''<ref>{{Citation | last = Jammer | first = Max | title = Einstein and Religion | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-691-00699-7 }}</ref>
-==== Mileva Maric ====+==Politics==
 +[[Image:Figh2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|
 +Einstein and
 +Indian poet and [[Nobel laureate]] [[Rabindranath Tagore]] during their widely-publicized [[July 14]], [[1930]] conversation]]
 +With increasing public demands, his involvement in political, humanitarian, and academic projects in various countries, and his new acquaintances with scholars and political figures from around the world, Einstein was less able to achieve the productive isolation that, according to biographer [[Ronald W. Clark]], he needed in order to work.<ref>{{Citation | last = Clark | first = Ronald W. | author-link = Ronald W. Clark | year = 1971 | title = Einstein: The Life and Times | publisher = Avon | id = ISBN 0-380-44123-3 }}</ref> Due to his fame and genius, Einstein found himself called on to give conclusive judgments on matters that had nothing to do with theoretical physics or mathematics. He was not timid, and he was aware of the world around him, with no illusion that ignoring politics would make world events fade away. His very visible position allowed him to speak and write frankly, even provocatively, at a time when many people of conscience could only flee to the [[Resistance during World War II|underground]] or keep doubts about developments within their own movements to themselves for fear of internecine fighting. Einstein flouted the ascendant [[Nazism|Nazi]] movement, tried to be a voice of moderation in the tumultuous formation of the [[Israel|State of Israel]] and braved anti-communist politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United States. He participated in the 1927 congress of the [[League against Imperialism]] in [[Brussels]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://san.beck.org/15-4-ChinaCivilWar1927-37.html|title=''Nationalist-Communist Civil War 1927-1937''|accessdate=2007-10-03}}</ref>
 +===Zionism===
 +Einstein was a [[Cultural Zionism|cultural Zionist]]. In 1931, The Macmillan Company published ''About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein''.<ref>ASIN: B00085M906</ref> [[Querido]], an [[Amsterdam]] publishing house, collected eleven of Einstein's essays into a 1933 book entitled ''Mein Weltbild'', translated to English as ''The World as I See It''; Einstein's foreword dedicates the collection "to the Jews of Germany".<ref>Available in reprint paperback from Filiquarian Publishing, LLC, ISBN 1599869659.</ref> In the face of Germany's rising militarism, Einstein wrote and spoke for peace.<ref>{{Citation | author =American Museum of Natural History | author-link =American Museum of Natural History | title =Einstein's Revolution | year =2002 | url =http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/revolution/index.php | access-date =2007-03-14 }}</ref><ref>See the AMNH site's popup of translated letter from Freud, in the section "Freud and Einstein", regarding proposed joint presentation on "What can be done to rid mankind of the menace of war?"</ref>
 +[[Image:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG|thumb|right|250px|Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife [[Elsa Einstein]] and Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel [[Chaim Weizmann]], his wife [[Vera Weizmann|Dr. Vera Weizmann]], [[Menachem Ussishkin]], and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921.]]
-[[Mileva Maric]], atteinte de [[coxalgie]] (boiteuse) et au physique sombre, est aussi élève du Polytechnicum. Elle tombe enceinte et accouchera chez ses parents en Serbie d’une petite fille, Lieserl, que le père et la mère devront abandonner. Nul ne sait ce qu’est devenue cette fille d’Einstein. Mais ce drame va briser la vie de Mileva et, à terme, celle du couple.+Despite his years of Zionist efforts, Einstein publicly stated reservations about the proposal to partition the British-supervised [[British Mandate of Palestine]] into independent Arab and Jewish countries. In a 1938 speech, "Our Debt to Zionism", he said: "I am afraid of the inner damage Judaism will sustain—especially from the development of a narrow nationalism within our own ranks, against which we have already had to fight strongly, even without a Jewish state."<ref>{{Citation | last =Rowe | first =David E.| last2 =Schulmann | first2 =Robert| title =Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb | publisher =Princeton University Press | year =2007 | isbn =0691120943 }}</ref>
-Einstein a toujours fui l'agitation humaine, refusé les effets faciles et les jugements à l'emporte-pièce. {{citation|Je suis un solitaire qui aime l'humanité}}, et pour lui {{citation|On ne peut appuyer la morale sur des règles constantes}}.+The [[United Nations]] did divide the mandate, demarcating the borders of several new countries including the [[State of Israel]], and [[1948 Arab-Israeli War|war]] broke out immediately. Einstein was one of the authors of a 1948 letter to the [[New York Times]] criticizing [[Menachem Begin]]'s [[Revisionist Zionism|Revisionist]] [[Herut]] (Freedom) Party for the [[Deir Yassin massacre]] {{Harv|Einstein||||1948}}.
 +Einstein served on the Board of Governors of [[The Hebrew University|The Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. In his Will of 1950, Einstein bequeathed literary rights to his writings to The Hebrew University, where many of his original documents are held in the Albert Einstein Archives.<ref>{{Citation | last =Albert Einstein Archives | chapter =History of the Estate of Albert Einstein | title =Albert Einstein Archives | publisher =The Hebrew University of Jerusalem | year =2007 | chapter-url =http://albert-einstein.org/history5.html | url =http://albert-einstein.org/ | access-date =2007-03-25 }}</ref>
-==== Autres personnalités ====+When President [[Chaim Weizmann]] died in 1952, Einstein was asked to be Israel's second president, but he declined. He wrote: "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it."<ref>{{Citation | last =Princeton Online | contribution =Einstein in Princeton: Scientist, Humanitarian, Cultural Icon | publisher =Historical Society of Princeton | date =1995 | contribution-url =http://www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm | access-date =2007-03-14 }}</ref>
-Il entretint toute sa vie une relation amicale avec la reine [[Élisabeth de Belgique]], avec qui il jouait du [[violon]] (« Je m'étonne de la courte mémoire des hommes quant aux faits politiques. Hier le [[procès de Nuremberg]], aujourd'hui le réarmement de l'Allemagne… »).+===Nazism===
 +In January 1933, [[Adolf Hitler]] was appointed [[Chancellor of Germany]]. One of the first actions of Hitler's administration was the [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]] which removed Jews and politically suspect government employees (including university professors) from their jobs, unless they had demonstrated their loyalty to Germany by serving in World War I. In December 1932, in response to this growing threat, Einstein had prudently traveled to the U.S. For several years he had been wintering at the [[California Institute of Technology]] in [[Pasadena, California]],<ref>Clark, R. "Einstein: The Life and Times" Harper-Collins, 1984. 880 pp.</ref> and also was a guest lecturer at [[Abraham Flexner]]'s newly founded [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]].
-En [[1933]], il publie avec [[Sigmund Freud]] un échange de lettres intitulé ''Pourquoi la guerre ?''+The Einstein family bought a house in Princeton (where Elsa died in 1936), and Einstein remained an integral contributor to the Institute for Advanced Study until his death in 1955. During the 1930s and into World War II, Einstein wrote [[affidavits]] recommending United States [[visa (document)|visas]] for a huge number of Jews from Europe trying to flee persecution, raised money for Zionist organizations and was in part responsible for the formation, in 1933, of the [[International Rescue Committee]].<ref>{{Citation | last =Princeton Online | contribution =Einstein in Princeton: Scientist, Humanitarian, Cultural Icon | publisher =Historical Society of Princeton | date =1995 | contribution-url =http://www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm | access-date =2007-03-14 }}</ref><ref>The [http://www.theirc.org/ International Rescue Committee] gives support and shelter to refugees of social and political persecution.</ref>
-==== Einstein et l'astrologie ====+Meanwhile in Germany, a campaign to eliminate Einstein's work from the German lexicon as unacceptable "[[Jewish physics]]" (''Jüdische physik'') was led by Nobel laureates [[Philipp Lenard]] and [[Johannes Stark]]. ''[[Deutsche Physik]]'' activists published pamphlets and even textbooks denigrating Einstein, and instructors who taught his theories were [[blacklist]]ed—including Nobel laureate [[Werner Heisenberg]], who had debated quantum probability with Bohr and Einstein. Philipp Lenard claimed that the [[mass–energy equivalence]] formula needed to be credited to [[Friedrich Hasenöhrl]] to make it an [[Aryan race#Nazism|Aryan]] creation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s8-08/8-08.htm|title=MathPages - Reflections on Relativity: Who Invented Relativity?|accessdate=2007-06-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ame.epfl.ch/biblio/schlatter1.pdf|title=Philipp Lenard et la physique aryenne|author=Christian Schlatter|publisher=École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|date=April 2002|accessdate=2007-06-25}}</ref>
-Contrairement à la citation qui lui est attachée par de nombreuses publications, en particulier celui de l'astrologue [[Élisabeth Teissier]], Einstein ne voyait dans l'[[astrologie]] que supercherie. Il a notamment exprimé son opinion très négative sur le sujet dans une introduction qu'il a écrite en [[1951]] pour l'ouvrage de [[Carola Baumgardt]].+Einstein became a citizen of the United States in 1940, although he retained his Swiss citizenship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/chron.htm|title=An Albert Einstein Chronology|accessdate=2007-08-06}}</ref>
-[[Citation apocryphe]] qui lui est attribuée : {{citation|L’astrologie est une science en soi, illuminatrice. J’ai beaucoup appris grâce à elle et je lui dois beaucoup. Les connaissances géophysiques mettent en relief le pouvoir des étoiles et des planètes sur le destin terrestre. À son tour, en un certain sens, l’astrologie le renforce. C’est pourquoi c’est une espèce d’élixir de vie pour l’humanité.}}+[[Image:Citizen-Einstein.jpg|right|thumb|225px|Albert Einstein receiving his certificate of American citizenship from Judge [[Phillip Forman]].]]
-Ce faux a pour origine le ''Huters astrologischer Kalender'' de [[1960]], publié en [[1959]]. La phrase a donc été forgée environ cinq ans après la mort d'Einstein.+===Atomic bomb===
 +[[Image:Einstein-Roosevelt-letter.png|left|thumb|Einstein-Szilárd letter]]
 +Concerned scientists, many of them refugees from European anti-Semitism in the U.S., recognized the possibility that German scientists were working toward developing an [[atomic bomb]]. They knew that Einstein's fame might make their fears more believable. In 1939, Einstein signed a [[Einstein-Szilárd letter|letter]] to U.S. President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] written by [[Leó Szilárd]] warning that based on Szilárd's research the Third Reich might be developing nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web| last = The Atomic Heritage Foundation| first = | title = Einstein's Letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt| url=http://www.mphpa.org/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=172| accessdate = 2007-05-26 }}</ref>
-==== Einstein et le végétarisme ====+The United States took stock of this warning, and within five years, the U.S. [[Manhattan Project|created its own nuclear weapons]], and used them on the Japanese cities of [[Nagasaki]] and [[Hiroshima]]. According to chemist and author [[Linus Pauling]], Einstein later expressed regret about the [[Einstein-Szilárd letter]].<ref>"Scientist Tells of Einstein's A-bomb Regrets". The Philadelphia Bulletin, 13 May 1955.</ref>
-Dans la lignée de ses prises de position anti-conformistes, Albert Einstein soutenait la cause [[végétarisme|végétarienne]]. Il considérait le [[végétarisme]] comme un idéal sans pourtant le pratiquer lui-même malgré quelques problèmes de conscience<ref>Einstein Archive 60-058)</ref>.+Along with other prominent individuals such as [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and [[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.]], Einstein in 1947 participated in a "National Conference on the German Problem," which produced a declaration stating that "any plans to resurrect the economic and political power of Germany… &#91;were&#93; dangerous to the security of the world."<ref>Steven Casey, [http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/archive/00000736/ "''The campaign to sell a harsh peace for Germany to the American public, 1944–1948''"]. History, 90 (297). pp. 62–92. (2005) ISSN 1468-229X</ref>
-Il considérait principalement les raisons de santé mais croyait également à l’effet bénéfique du régime végétarien sur le tempérament des hommes<ref>Lettre à Hermann Huth, 27 décembre 1930. Einstein Archive 46-756</ref>.+
-C'est seulement un an avant sa mort qu’il mit en pratique ce régime<ref>Lettre à Hans Muehsam, du 30 mars 1954</ref>.+
-=== Le cerveau d'Einstein ===+===Cold War era===
 +When he was a visible figure working against the rise of Nazism, Einstein had sought help and developed working relationships in both the West and what was to become the [[Soviet bloc]]. After World War II, enmity between the former allies became a very serious issue for people with international résumés. To make things worse, during the first days of [[McCarthyism]] Einstein was writing about a single [[world government]]; it was at this time that he wrote, "I do not know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth—rocks!"<ref>{{Citation | first = Alice | last = Calaprice | title = The new quotable Einstein | page = 173 | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-691-12075-7 }} Other versions of the quote exist.</ref> In a 1949 ''Monthly Review'' article entitled "Why Socialism?"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1132/is_n8_v40/ai_6944290|title=Why Socialism?<!--INSERT TITLE-->|accessdate=2007-06-30}}</ref> Albert Einstein described a chaotic [[capitalism|capitalist]] society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development" {{Harv|Einstein|1949}}. With [[Albert Schweitzer]] and [[Bertrand Russell]], Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed the [[Russell-Einstein Manifesto]], which led to the [[Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs]].<ref>{{cite web
 + | last =Butcher
 + | first =Sandra Ionno
 + | authorlink =
 + | coauthors =
 + | title =The Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto
 + | work =
 + | publisher =Council of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
 + | date =May 2005
 + | url =http://www.pugwash.org/publication/phs/history9.pdf
 + | accessdate = 2007-05-02}}
 +</ref>
-{{à sourcer}}+Einstein was a member of several [[American Civil Rights Movement (1896-1954)|civil rights]] groups, including the Princeton chapter of the [[NAACP]]. When the aged [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's friendship with activist [[Paul Robeson]], with whom he served as co-chair of the [[American Crusade Against Lynching|American Crusade to End Lynching]], lasted 20 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2007/04.12/01-einstein.html|title=Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist|date=2007-04-12|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref>
-En [[1978]], le journaliste [[Steven Levy]] apprend par son employeur le journal ''New Jersey Monthly'' que le [[cerveau]] du savant aurait été conservé et lui demande de le récupérer.+In 1946, Einstein collaborated with Rabbi Israel Goldstein, Middlesex heir C. Ruggles Smith, and activist attorney George Alpert on the Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, Inc., which was formed to create a Jewish-sponsored secular university, open to all students, on the grounds of the former Middlesex College in [[Waltham, Massachusetts]]. Middlesex was chosen in part because it was accessible from both Boston and New York City, Jewish cultural centers of the U.S. Their vision was a university "deeply conscious both of the Hebraic tradition of Torah looking upon culture as a birthright, and of the American ideal of an educated democracy."<ref name="Reis">{{Citation |last =Reis |first =Arthur H., Jr |year =1998 |title =The Albert Einstein Involvement |journal =Brandeis Review, 50th Anniversary Edition |url =http://www.brandeis.edu/publications/review/50threview/einstein.pdf | access-date =2007-03-25 }}</ref> The collaboration was stormy, however. Finally, when Einstein wanted to appoint British economist [[Harold J. Laski]] as the university's president, Alpert wrote that Laski was "a man utterly alien to American principles of democracy, tarred with the Communist brush."<ref name="Reis"/> Einstein withdrew his support and barred the use of his name.<ref>{{Citation | last =New York Times | title =Dr. Einstein Quits University Plan | newspaper =The New York Times | date =June 22, 1947 | year =1947 | url =http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50812FA385D13728DDDAB0A94DE405B8788F1D3 | access-date =2007-03-14 }}</ref> The university opened in 1948 as [[Brandeis University]]. In 1953, Brandeis offered Einstein an honorary degree, but he declined.<ref name="Reis"/>
-Levy sera accompagné par un caméraman durant sa quête et le film diffusé dans les [[années 1990]] sur le petit écran en [[France]]. Après une longue enquête, il le retrouve en effet à [[Wichita]], [[Kansas]], chez le pathologiste qui avait procédé à son extraction, le Dr Thomas Harvey.+Given Einstein's links to Germany and Zionism, his socialistic ideals, and his perceived links to Communist figures, the U.S. [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] kept a file on Einstein<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/2002/sep2002/eins-s03.shtml | title=The FBI and Albert Einstein}}</ref> that grew to 1,427 pages. Many of the documents in the file were sent to the FBI by concerned citizens: some objecting to his immigration, while others asked the FBI to protect him.<ref>{{Citation | last =Federal Bureau of Investigation| chapter =Albert Einstein | title =FBI Freedom of Information Act Website | publisher =U.S. Federal Government, U.S. Department of Justice | year =2005 | chapter-url =http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/einstein.htm | access-date =2005-11-21 }}</ref>
-Les médias campèrent évidemment devant son domicile en quête d'informations lui créant énormément de désagréments. Par la suite, le Dr Harvey avoua qu'il n'avait rien trouvé de particulier dans sa structure physique pouvant expliquer son génie.+Although Einstein had long been sympathetic to the notion of [[vegetarianism]], it was only near the start of 1954 that he adopted a strict vegetarian diet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ivu.org/history/northam20a/einstein.html|title=History of Vegetarianism - Albert Einstein|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref>
-Mais de plus récentes études (parues notamment dans ''Science et Vie'') concluent que le cerveau d'Einstein possédait un nombre élevé d'[[astrocyte]]s. Les chercheurs à qui l'on doit cette découverte ignorent si cela est responsable de son [[intelligence]] étant donné que les astrocytes auraient été négligées dans les recherches neurologiques s'intéressant avant tout aux [[neurone]]s.+==Death==
-Il s'avéra aussi que la Scissure de Sylvius (une certaine partie du cerveau) avait une inclinaison particulière, augmentant la taille de la zone du raisonnement abstrait au détriment de la zone du langage (ce qui expliquerait qu'Einstein n'ait su parler que très tard)+On [[April 17]], [[1955]], Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an [[aortic aneurism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/436253|title=The Case of the Scientist with a Pulsating Mass|date=2002-06-14|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> He took a draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.<ref>{{Citation | last =Albert Einstein Archives | contribution =Draft of projected Telecast Israel Independence Day, April 1955 (last statement ever written) | title =Einstein Archives Online | date =April 1955 | year =1955 | contribution-url =http://www.alberteinstein.info/db/ViewImage.do?DocumentID=20078&Page=1 | url =http://www.alberteinstein.info/ | accessdate =2007-03-14 }}</ref> He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76. Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered.<ref>{{Citation | last =O'Connor | first =J.J. | last2 =Robertson | first2 =E.F. | chapter =Albert Einstein | title =The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive | publisher =School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews | date =1997 | chapter-url =http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Einstein.html | access-date =2007-03-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76. World Mourns Loss of Great Scientist.
 + |url= |quote=[[Princeton, New Jersey]], [[April 18]], [[1955]]. Dr. Albert Einstein, one of the great thinkers of the ages, died in his sleep here early today. |publisher=[[New York Times]] |date=[[April 19]], [[1955]], Tuesday |accessdate=2007-07-21 }}</ref>
-=== Divers ===+Before the cremation, Princeton Hospital pathologist [[Thomas Stoltz Harvey]] removed [[Albert Einstein's brain|Einstein's brain]] for preservation, in hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4602913|title=The Long, Strange Journey of Einstein's Brain|accessdate=2007-10-03}}</ref>
-Un [[Einstein (unité de mesure)|einstein]] est une unité de mesure égale au [[nombre d'Avogadro]] fois l’énergie d’un photon (lumière). Il existe un [[élément chimique]] : l’[[einsteinium]].+==Legacy==
 +While travelling, Einstein had written daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters, Margot and Ilse, and the letters were included in the papers bequeathed to [[The Hebrew University]]. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986<ref>New York Times obituary [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DEFD9153FF931A25754C0A960948260]</ref>). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the [[British Broadcasting Company|BBC]] that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.<ref>{{Citation | author =BBC | author-link =BBC | title =Letters Reveal Einstein Love Life | journal =BBC News | publisher =British Broadcasting Company | year =2006 | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5168002.stm | access-date =2007-03-14 }}</ref>
-[[2005]] fut l’année mondiale de la physique, mais aussi l’année d’Einstein, en commémoration du centenaire de l’''annus mirabilis''.+The United States' [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] commissioned the ''[[Albert Einstein Memorial]]'', a monumental bronze and marble sculpture by [[Robert Berks]], dedicated in 1979 at its [[Washington, D.C.]] campus adjacent to the [[National Mall]].
-=== Inventions et brevets ===+Einstein bequeathed the [[royalties]] from use of his [[personality rights|image]] to [[The Hebrew University|The Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. [[The Roger Richman Agency]] [[license]]s the use of his name and associated imagery, as [[agent (law)|agent]] for the Hebrew University.<ref>{{Citation | last =Roger Richman Agency | chapter =Albert Einstein Licensing | year =2007 | chapter-url =http://www.albert-einstein.net/index2.html | access-date =2007-03-25 }}</ref>
-Einstein fut autre qu'un théoricien, il a aussi inventé des appareils et a déposé de nombreux brevets en collaboration avec des amis.+==Honors==
 +{{seealso|List of things named after Albert Einstein}}
-En voici quelques exemples :+In 1999, Albert Einstein was named "[[Person of the Century]]" by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine,<ref>{{Citation | last =Isaacson | first =Walter | author-link = Walter Isaacson | title =Person of the Century: Why We Chose Einstein | magazine =[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date =January 3, 2000 | url =http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/magazine/who_mattered_and_why4a.html | access-date =2007-07-16 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Golden | first =Frederic | title =Person of the Century: Albert Einstein
-* Voltmètre ultrasensible : En 1908, avec Paul Habicht, il met au point un [[voltmètre]] capable de mesurer des tensions de l'ordre d'un dix-millième de [[volt]]. Ce « multiplicateur de potentiel Einstein-Habicht » sera commercialisé à partir de 1912.+ | magazine =[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date =January 3, 2000 | url =http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/magazine/albert_einstein5a.html | access-date =2006-02-25 }}</ref> the [[Gallup Poll]] recorded him as the fourth most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person of the 20th century<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.galluppoll.com/content/?ci=3367&pg=1|title=Mother Teresa Voted by American People as Most Admired Person of the Century|date=1999-12-31|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> and according to ''The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History'', Einstein is "the greatest scientist of the twentieth century and one of the supreme intellects of all time."<ref>{{Citation | last =Hart | first =Michael H. | title =[[The 100|The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History]] | publisher =Citadel Press | date =1978 | pages =p. 52
-* Réfrigérateur : Avec son ancien étudiant et ami [[Leo Szilard]], il crée plusieurs types de réfrigérateurs (un système à absorption, un système à diffusion et un système électromagnétique). Ce dernier système s'appuie sur une « pompe électromagnétique » qui est encore utilisée pour transporter le sodium dans les [[Réacteur à neutrons rapides|réacteurs à neutrons rapides à caloporteur sodium]] (2005). Les réfrigérateurs n'ont pas été commercialisés.+| isbn =0-8065-1350-0 }}</ref>
-* Appareil de correction auditive : Un des quarante brevets déposés avec [[Leó Szilárd]].+[[Image:Einstein Memorial.jpg|thumb|200px|Albert Einstein Memorial located on the public grounds of the U.S. [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]], [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
 +A partial list of his memorials:
-== Distinctions ==+*The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Physics]] named 2005 the "[[World Year of Physics]]" in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the publication of the Annus Mirabilis Papers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wyp2005.org/overview.html |title= World Year of Physics 2005 |accessdate=2007-10-03 }}</ref>
 +* The ''[[Albert Einstein Memorial]]'' by [[Robert Berks]]
 +* A unit used in [[photochemistry]], the ''[[einstein (unit)|einstein]]''
 +* The [[chemical element]] 99, [[einsteinium]]
 +* The [[asteroid]] [[2001 Einstein]]
 +* The [[Albert Einstein Award]]
 +* The [[Albert Einstein Peace Prize]]
-* [[1921]] : [[Prix Nobel de Physique]]+In 1990, his name was added to the [[Walhalla temple]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.walhalla-regensburg.de/deutsch/index.shtml |title= Walhalla Ruhmes- und Ehrenhalle |accessdate=2007-10-03 |language=German }}</ref>
-* [[1931]] : [[Prix Jules Janssen]]+
-==Œuvres==+==Impact on popular culture==
-* ''Comment je vois le monde'', collection Champs 183, Flammarion, 1989 {{ISBN|2-08-081183-5}}. Recueil d'articles.''[édition française originale Flammarion 1934]''.+{{main|Albert Einstein in popular culture}}
-* ''Pourquoi la [[guerre]] ?'' (1933), Rivages, 2005, {{ISBN|2743613645}}, avec [[Sigmund Freud]].+In the period before World War II, Albert Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."<ref>The New Yorker April 1939 pg 69 [http://www.newyorker.com/search/query?queryType=nonparsed&query=Einstein+&bylquery=Maloney&month1=01&day1=14&year1=1939&month2=01&day2=14&year2=1939&page=&sort=&submit.x=10&submit.y=5 Disguise]</ref>
-Une sélection des œuvres d'Einstein, notamment ses articles techniques originaux, sont aujourd'hui disponibles en traduction française commentée sous le titre ''Œuvres choisies'' aux éditions du Seuil/CNRS éditions, dans la collection Sources du savoir (6 volumes parus depuis 1989).+
-* Françoise Balibar (ed.), ''Albert Einstein : physique, philosophie, politique'', éditions du Seuil, {{ISBN|2020396580}}. Livre de poche qui contient des « morceaux choisis » issus de la sélection précédente.+
-== Citations ==+Albert Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, and plays. Einstein is a favorite model for depictions of [[mad scientist]]s and [[absent-minded professor]]s; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true."<ref>{{Citation | last =Golden | first =Frederic | title =Person of the Century: Albert Einstein
 + | magazine =[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date =January 3, 2000 | url =http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/magazine/albert_einstein5a.html | access-date =2006-02-25 }}</ref>
-* "La théorie nous apporte beaucoup, mais elle nous approche à peine du secret du Vieux. En tout cas, je suis convaincu que Lui ne joue pas aux dés" (''lettre d'Einstein à Max Born, 4 décembre 1926'').+==See also==
 +<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
 +* [[Theory of Everything]]
 +* [[History of special relativity]]
 +* [[History of general relativity]]
 +* [[The Einstein Theory of Relativity]] (educational film about the theory of relativity)
 +* [[Introduction to special relativity]]
 +* [[Relativity priority dispute]]
 +* [[List of things named after Einstein]]
 +* [[Photoelectric effect]]
 +* [[EPR paradox]]
 +* [[Sticky bead argument]]
 +* [[Annus Mirabilis Papers]]
 +* [[History of gravitational theory]]
 +* [[Summation convention]]
 +* [[List of coupled cousins]]
 +</div>
-== Annexes ==+==Publications==
-=== Bibliographie ===+The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at [[Works by Albert Einstein]].
-Cette bibliographie contient quelques ouvrages incontournables pour aborder le personnage d'Einstein et son œuvre. Pour des ouvrages plus techniques, le lecteur se reportera aux bibliographies des articles spécialisés citées ci-dessous.+<div class="references-small">
-====Biographies====+*{{Citation
-* Françoise Balibar, ''Einstein : La joie de la pensée'', collection Découvertes, Gallimard (1993) {{ISBN|2070532208}}.+ | last=Einstein
-* Banesh Hoffmann, ''Albert Einstein, créateur et rebelle'', Collection Points-Sciences, Le Seuil (1975) {{ISBN|2020053470}}. Une excellente biographie au format poche, par un ancien collaborateur d'Einstein à l'Institute for Advanced Studies de Princeton.+ | first=Albert
-* Philippe Frank, ''Einstein - Sa vie et son temps'', Collection Les savants & le monde, Albin Michel (Paris-1950). Réédition en poche dans la collection Champs, Flammarion (1993) ISBN 2080812424. Une biographie ''autorisée'' de première main, par celui qui fut le successeur d'Einstein à la chaire de physique théorique de l'Université de Prague, nommé sur sa recommandation. Très documentée, elle décrit admirablement le contexte historique (scientifique et politique) de la genèse des travaux d'Einstein.+ | year=1901
-* Abraham Pais, ''Albert Einstein : La vie et l'œuvre'', Intereditions (1993). Réédité par Dunod (2005) ISBN 2100493892. La biographie scientifique qui fait aujourd'hui autorité depuis sa parution en 1982, par un professeur de l'[[université Rockefeller]] qui a connu Einstein dans les dernières années de sa vie. Contenu extrêmement riche. ''Le niveau de certains passages techniques est celui d'un second cycle universitaire''.+ | title=Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity)
 + | periodical=Annalen der Physik
 + | volume=4
 + | pages=513
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + |last=Einstein|first=Albert|year=1905a
 + |title=On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light
 + |journal=Annalen der Physik|volume=17|pages=132–148
 +}}. This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik [[March 18]].
 +*{{Citation
 + |last=Einstein|first=Albert|year=1905b
 + |title=A new determination of molecular dimensions
 +}}. This PhD thesis was completed [[April 30]] and submitted [[July 20]].
 +*{{Citation
 + |last=Einstein|first=Albert|year=1905c
 + |title=On the Motion—Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat—of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid
 + |journal=Annalen der Physik|volume=17|pages=549–560
 +}}. This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian motion was received [[May 11]].
 +*{{Citation
 + |last=Einstein|first=Albert|year=1905d
 + |title=On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies
 + |journal=Annalen der Physik|volume=17|pages=891–921
 +}}. This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received [[June 30]].
 +*{{Citation
 + |last=Einstein|first=Albert|year=1905e
 + |title= Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?
 + |journal=Annalen der Physik|volume=18|pages=639–641
 +}}. This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received [[September 27]].
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | title =Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation)
 + | journal =Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften
 + | pages =844–847
 + | year =1915
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | title =Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity)
 + | journal =Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften
 + | year =1917a
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | title =Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)
 + | journal =Physikalische Zeitschrift
 + | volume =18
 + | pages =121–128
 + | year =1917b
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | year =1923
 + | date =July 11, 1923
 + | contribution =Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity
 + | title = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921
 + | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company
 + | place =Amsterdam
 + | url =http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-lecture.pdf
 + | access-date =2007-03-25
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | title =Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases)
 + | journal =Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch—Mathematische Klasse
 + | pages =261–267
 + | year =1924
 +}}. First of a series of papers on this topic.
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | title =Die Ursache der M&auml;anderbildung der Flussl&auml;ufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes
 + | journal = Die Naturwissenschaften
 + | pages =223-224
 + | year =1926
 +}}. On [[Baer's law]] and [[meander]]s in the courses of rivers.
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | last2 =Podolsky
 + | first2 =Boris
 + | last3 =Rosen
 + | first3 =Nathan
 + | title =Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?
 + | journal =Physical Review
 + | issue =10
 + | volume =47
 + | pages =777–780
 + | date =May 15, 1935
 + | year =1935
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | title =On Science and Religion
 + | journal =Nature
 + | volume =146
 + | year =1940
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert, ''et al.''
 + | year =1948
 + | title =To the editors
 + | newspaper =New York Times
 + | date =December 4, 1948
 + | url =http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | title =Why Socialism?
 + | magazine =Monthly Review
 + | year =1949
 + | date =May 1949
 + | url =http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm
 + | accessdate =2006-01-16
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | title =On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation
 + | journal =Scientific American
 + | volume =CLXXXII
 + | issue =4
 + | pages =13–17
 + | year =1950
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | title =Ideas and Opinions
 + | place=New York
 + | publisher =Random House
 + | year =1954
 + | isbn =0-517-00393-7
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | author-link =
 + | title =Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955
 + | publisher =Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung
 + | year =1969
 + | location =Munich
 + | language = German
 +}}
 +*{{Citation
 + | last =Einstein
 + | first =Albert
 + | translator =Paul Arthur Schilpp
 + | edition =Centennial
 + | title =Autobiographical Notes
 + | year =1979
 + | place =Chicago
 + | publisher =Open Court
 + | isbn =0-875-48352-6
 +}}. The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.
 +* Collected Papers: {{cite book | author = [[John Stachel|Stachel, John]], Martin J. Klein, a. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R. Schulmann, Diana Komos Buchwald and others (Eds.) | year = 1987–2006 | title = The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol 1–10 | publisher = Princeton University Press}} Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the [http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html Einstein Papers Project].
 +<!--Place new references above this line--></div>
-====Ouvrages de vulgarisation====+==Notes==
-* Albert Einstein, [[Référence:La relativité (Albert Einstein)|''La relativité'', Gauthier-Villars (1956)]]. Au format poche, un exposé élémentaire des principes de la théorie de la relativité restreinte et générale, par son auteur. Indémodable.+<!-- ----------------------------------------------------------
-* Banesh Hoffmann, ''Histoire d'une grande idée : la relativité'', Éditions Pour La Science (1985), diffusion Belin {{ISBN|0-9029-1844-5}}. Un exposé remarquable pour sa clarté et sa simplicité de la relativité, par un ancien collaborateur d'Einstein à l'Institute for Advanced Studies de Princeton.+ See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for a
-* Thibault Damour, ''Si Einstein m'était conté'', Éditions du Cherche-midi, Paris (2005) {{ISBN|2-74910-390-8}}. Le grand spécialiste français des théories de la relativité nous livre enfin « son » Einstein sans équations. Thibault Damour est professeur permanent à l'Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques (IHES) de Bures-sur-Yvette ; il a longtemps enseigné la relativité générale au DEA de physique théorique de la rue d'Ulm.+ discussion of different citation methods and how to generate
-* Albert Einstein & [[Leopold Infeld]], ''L'évolution des idées en physique'', collection Champs, Flammarion (1993) {{ISBN|2080811193}}. Au format poche, une histoire de la physique, de la mécanique de Newton jusqu'aux théories modernes (relativité, quanta), écrite en 1936 par le Maître lui-même et l'un de ses disciples à Princeton, pour financer le séjour de ce dernier.+ footnotes using the <ref>, </ref> and <reference /> tags
 +----------------------------------------------------------- -->
 +{{Reflist|2}}
-====Ouvrages techniques====+==External links==
-* Michèle Leduc & Michel Le Bellac (éditeurs), ''Einstein aujourd'hui'', EDP Sciences (Janvier 2005), 428 pp., {{ISBN|2-86883-768-9}}. Pour célébrer l'« Année mondiale de la physique 2005 », les Éditions de Physique nous proposent un panorama contemporain des domaines de la physique initiée par Einstein en 1905 : relativités, quanta, physique statistique de la diffusion. Les textes, souvent techniques, sont écrits par les plus grands experts français de ces domaines.+{{sisterlinks|Albert Einstein}}
-* Séminaire Poincaré : [http://parthe.lpthe.jussieu.fr/poincare/textes/avril2005.html ''Einstein, 1905-2005''] (Paris, 08 avril 2005).+<div class="plainlinks">
 +* [http://www.alberteinstein.info/ Einstein Archives Online]
 +* [http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/index.html "A. Einstein: Image and Impact"], on the [[American Institute of Physics]]'s "AIP Center for the History of Physics" site: biography, audio and full site as downloadable PDF for classroom use
 +* [http://photos.aip.org/exhibits/ein.jsp "Emilio Segre Visual Archives: Albert Einstein"], American Institute of Physics
 +* [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Einstein.html "The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive": Albert Einstein] University of Saint Andrews, School of Mathematics and Statistics (huge bibliography for further reading)
 +* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/ "Einstein's Big Idea"] [[NOVA (TV series)|NOVA]] television documentary series website, Public Broadcasting Service (preview available online)
 +* [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/index.html Nobelprize.org: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921]
 +* [http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=53269/ Mathematics Genealogy Project: Albert Einstein], [[Mathematics Genealogy Project]] (a service of the [[NDSU]] Department of Mathematics, in association with the [[American Mathematical Society]])
 +* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/ineinsteinsshadow.shtml In Einstein's Shadow] BBC Radio 4 series on Einstein's contributions to science
 +</div>
-* Se reporter aux bibliographies des articles spécialisés :+{{academia
-** [[Relativité restreinte]]+|teachers=[[Alfred Kleiner]]
-** [[Relativité générale]]+|students=Hans Tanner
-** [[Physique quantique]]+
- +
-=== Articles connexes ===+
-* [[Prix Nobel de physique]]+
-* La date de naissance d'Albert Einstein est également la [[journée de π]]+
-* [[Loi de Nernst-Einstein]]+
-* [[Statistique de Bose-Einstein]]+
-* [[Mileva Einstein]]+
-* [[(2001) Einstein]]+
- +
-=== Liens externes ===+
-{{Autres projets|commons=Albert Einstein|q=Albert Einstein}}+
- +
-* {{en}} [http://www.westegg.com/einstein/ Albert Einstein online], annuaire de liens+
-* {{en}} [http://alberteinstein.info/ Toutes les archives d'Einstein en ligne]+
-* {{fr}} [http://www.science.gouv.fr/index.php?qcms=dossier,view,2155,archives,154,7,,,, Le centenaire des travaux d'Albert Einstein]. Bibliographie d'ouvrages sur l'œuvre d'Albert Einstein sur le site internet du [[Ministère de l'Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche]].+
- +
-=== Notes et références ===+
-{{Références|colonnes=2}}+
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- |nom=[[Prix Nobel de physique]]+
- |période=1921+
- |après=[[Niels Bohr]]+
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-[[Catégorie:Prix Jules Janssen]]+|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]]
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Version actuelle

Modèle:Sprotected2 Modèle:Redirect Modèle:Pp-semi-vandalism Modèle:Infobox Scientist nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921|accessdate=2007-03-06|author=Nobel Foundation|authorlink=Nobel Foundation}}</ref>//nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921|accessdate=2007-03-06|author=Nobel Foundation|authorlink=Nobel Foundation}}</ref>

Einstein's many contributions to physics include his special theory of relativity, which reconciled mechanics with electromagnetism, and his general theory of relativity, which extended the principle of relativity to non-uniform motion, creating a new theory of gravitation. His other contributions include relativistic cosmology, capillary action, critical opalescence, classical problems of statistical mechanics and their application to quantum theory, an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules, atomic transition probabilities, the quantum theory of a monatomic gas, thermal properties of light with low radiation density (which laid the foundation for the photon theory), a theory of radiation including stimulated emission, the conception of a unified field theory, and the geometrization of physics.

nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html|title=Albert Einstein - Biography|accessdate=2007-03-07|author=Nobel Foundation|authorlink=Nobel Foundation|work=from Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967}}</ref> In 1999 Einstein was named Time magazine's "Person of the Century", and a poll of prominent physicists named him the greatest physicist of all time.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/851|title=Physics: past, present, future|accessdate=2007-11-27|author=Matin Durrani|authorlink=Physics World|work=Physics World, 1999-12-06}}</ref> In popular culture the name "Einstein" has become synonymous with genius.//nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html|title=Albert Einstein - Biography|accessdate=2007-03-07|author=Nobel Foundation|authorlink=Nobel Foundation|work=from Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967}}</ref> In 1999 Einstein was named Time magazine's "Person of the Century", and a poll of prominent physicists named him the greatest physicist of all time.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/851|title=Physics: past, present, future|accessdate=2007-11-27|author=Matin Durrani|authorlink=Physics World|work=Physics World, 1999-12-06}}</ref> In popular culture the name "Einstein" has become synonymous with genius.

Sommaire

Youth and schooling

Albert Einstein was born into a Jewish family in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany on March 14, 1879. His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded a company, Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie that manufactured electrical equipment, providing the first lighting for the Oktoberfest and cabling for the Munich suburb of Schwabing.

The Einsteins were not observant of Jewish religious practices, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school. Although Albert had early speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school.<ref>«  »</ref><ref>Thomas Sowell used Einstein's name for a book on such children. Modèle:Cite book</ref>

Image:Eins1.jpg
Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14), taken before the family moved to Italy

When Albert was five, his father showed him a pocket compass. Albert realized that something in empty space was moving the needle and later stated that this experience made "a deep and lasting impression".<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> At his mother's insistence, he took violin lessons starting at age six, and although he disliked them and eventually quit, he later took great pleasure in Mozart's violin sonatas. As he grew, Albert built models and mechanical devices for fun, and began to show a talent for mathematics.

www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF]: about Max Talmud visited on Thursdays for 6 years.</ref> introduced the ten-year-old Albert to key science, mathematics, and philosophy texts, including Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (Einstein called it the "holy little geometry book").<ref name=HarvChemAE/> From Euclid, Albert began to understand deductive reasoning (integral to theoretical physics), and by the age of twelve, he learned Euclidean geometry from a school booklet. Soon thereafter he began to investigate calculus.//www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF]: about Max Talmud visited on Thursdays for 6 years.</ref> introduced the ten-year-old Albert to key science, mathematics, and philosophy texts, including Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (Einstein called it the "holy little geometry book").<ref name=HarvChemAE/> From Euclid, Albert began to understand deductive reasoning (integral to theoretical physics), and by the age of twelve, he learned Euclidean geometry from a school booklet. Soon thereafter he began to investigate calculus.

In his early teens, Albert attended the new and progressive Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Albert clashed with authorities and resented the school regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning.

In 1894, when Einstein was fifteen, his father's business failed, and the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, after a few months, to Pavia. During this time, Albert wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields".<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Mehra , Jagdish 
     
 

     (www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf//www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf)
   
.  

. Retrieved on 2007-03-04.

</ref> Albert had been left behind in Munich to finish high school, but in the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.

Rather than completing high school, Albert decided to apply directly to the ETH Zurich, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, Switzerland. Without a school certificate, he was required to take an entrance examination, which he did not pass, although he got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics. Einstein wrote that it was in that same year, at age 16, that he first performed his famous thought experiment, visualizing traveling alongside a beam of light Modèle:Harv.

www.einstein-website.de/z_information/variousthings.html#national | accessmonthday=4 October | accessyear=2006 }}</ref> Marie moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.//www.einstein-website.de/z_information/variousthings.html#national | accessmonthday=4 October | accessyear=2006 }}</ref> Marie moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.

www.pbs.org/opb/einsteinswife/ | title = Einstein's Wife: The Life of Mileva Maric Einstein | publisher =Public Broadcasting Service | access-date = 2006-11-8}} This web site, companion to the controversial Geraldine Hilton documentary of the same name, is currently under review for historical accuracy. (See «  ».)</ref> Einstein and Marić had a daughter, Lieserl Einstein, born in early 1902.<ref>This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Marić. Lieserl is first mentioned in a letter from Einstein to Marić (who was abroad at the time of Lieserl's birth) dated February 4, 1902 (Collected papers Vol. 1, document 134).</ref> Her fate is unknown.//www.pbs.org/opb/einsteinswife/ | title = Einstein's Wife: The Life of Mileva Maric Einstein | publisher =Public Broadcasting Service | access-date = 2006-11-8}} This web site, companion to the controversial Geraldine Hilton documentary of the same name, is currently under review for historical accuracy. (See «  ».)</ref> Einstein and Marić had a daughter, Lieserl Einstein, born in early 1902.<ref>This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Marić. Lieserl is first mentioned in a letter from Einstein to Marić (who was abroad at the time of Lieserl's birth) dated February 4, 1902 (Collected papers Vol. 1, document 134).</ref> Her fate is unknown.

www.ssqq.com/archive/alberteinstein.htm|title=A Brief Biography of Albert Einstein|month=April|year=2005|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> That same year, Einstein's friend Michele Besso introduced him to the work of Ernst Mach. The next year, Einstein published a paper in the prestigious Annalen der Physik on the capillary forces of a straw Modèle:Harv.//www.ssqq.com/archive/alberteinstein.htm|title=A Brief Biography of Albert Einstein|month=April|year=2005|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> That same year, Einstein's friend Michele Besso introduced him to the work of Ernst Mach. The next year, Einstein published a paper in the prestigious Annalen der Physik on the capillary forces of a straw Modèle:Harv.

Patent office

Image:Einsteinhaus4.jpg
The 'Einsteinhaus' in Berne where Einstein lived with Mileva on the first floor during his Annus Mirabilis

www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1.shtm|accessmonthday=16 October |accessyear= 2006 }}. See also their You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  John Stachel
   
 


.  

. Retrieved on 2007-02-23. </ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1094.shtm}}</ref> the patent office, as an assistant examiner. His responsibility was evaluating patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office was made permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".<ref name="GalisonClocks">Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time" Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 355–389.</ref>//www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1.shtm|accessmonthday=16 October |accessyear= 2006 }}. See also their You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  John Stachel
   
 


.  

. Retrieved on 2007-02-23. </ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1094.shtm}}</ref> the patent office, as an assistant examiner. His responsibility was evaluating patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office was made permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".<ref name="GalisonClocks">Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time" Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 355–389.</ref>

Einstein's college friend, Michele Besso, also worked at the patent office. With friends they met in Bern, they formed a weekly discussion club on science and philosophy, jokingly named "The Olympia Academy". Their readings included Poincaré, Mach and Hume, who influenced Einstein's scientific and philosophical outlook.<ref name="GalisonClocksMaps">Modèle:Cite book</ref>

While this period at the patent office has often been cited as a waste of Einstein's talents,<ref>See, for example, the discussion in the "Moonlighting in the Patent Office" section of Gary F. Moring, The Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding Einstein (Alpha Books, 2004): 7.</ref> or as a temporary job with no connection to his interests in physics,<ref>E.g. «  »</ref> the historian of science Peter Galison has argued that Einstein's work there was connected to his later interests. Much of that work related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time: two technical problems of the day that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.<ref name="GalisonClocks"/><ref name="GalisonClocksMaps"/>

physicsweb.org/articles/world/17/4/2 | accessmonthday=21 November | accessyear=2005 |author=Alberto A Martínez }}</ref><ref>Modèle:Cite web philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.esterson.org/milevamaric.htm |title=Mileva Marić: Einstein’s Wife |accessdate=2007-02-23 |author=Allen Esterson}}//physicsweb.org/articles/world/17/4/2 | accessmonthday=21 November | accessyear=2005 |author=Alberto A Martínez }}</ref><ref>Modèle:Cite web philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.esterson.org/milevamaric.htm |title=Mileva Marić: Einstein’s Wife |accessdate=2007-02-23 |author=Allen Esterson}} </ref><ref>{{cite web philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf |title=“Albert Einstein and Mileva Maric. A Collaboration That Failed to Develop” in: Creative Couples in the Sciences, H. M. Pycior et al. (ed) |accessdate=2007-02-23 |author=John Stachel}}</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf |title=“Albert Einstein and Mileva Maric. A Collaboration That Failed to Develop” in: Creative Couples in the Sciences, H. M. Pycior et al. (ed) |accessdate=2007-02-23 |author=John Stachel}}</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.

Annus Mirabilis

Image:Einstein patentoffice.jpg
Albert Einstein, 1905

In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, Einstein had four papers published in the Annalen der Physik, the leading German physics journal. These are the papers that history has come to call the Annus Mirabilis Papers:

  • His paper on the particulate nature of light put forward the idea that certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect, could be simply understood from the postulate that light interacts with matter as discrete "packets" (quanta) of energy, an idea that had been introduced by Max Planck in 1900 as a purely mathematical manipulation, and which seemed to contradict contemporary wave theories of light. This was the only work of Einstein's that he himself pronounced as "revolutionary". Modèle:Harv
  • His paper on Brownian motion explained the random movement of very small objects as direct evidence of molecular action, thus supporting the atomic theory. Modèle:Harv
  • His paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced the radical theory of special relativity, which showed that the observed independence of the speed of light on the observer's state of motion required fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity. Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body slowing down and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. Modèle:Harv
  • In his paper on the equivalence of matter and energy (previously considered to be distinct concepts), Einstein deduced from his equations of special relativity what later became the well known expression: <math>E = m c^2</math>, suggesting that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy. Modèle:Harv

All four papers are today recognized as tremendous achievements—and hence 1905 is known as Einstein's "Wonderful Year". At the time, however, they were not noticed by most physicists as being important, and many of those who did notice them rejected them outright. Some of this work—such as the theory of light quanta—remained controversial for years.<ref>On the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in Thomas F. Glick, ed., The Comparative Reception of Relativity (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1987), ISBN 9027724989.</ref><ref>«  »</ref>

At the age of 26, having studied under Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled "A new determination of molecular dimensions." Modèle:Harv

Light and general relativity

Modèle:Seealso

Image:1919 eclipse positive.jpg
One of the 1919 eclipse photographs taken during Arthur Eddington's expedition, which confirmed Einstein's predictions of the gravitational bending of light.

www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/ Einstein's Big Idea]." Public Broadcasting Service. 2005. Retrieved on February 25, 2006.</ref>//www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/ Einstein's Big Idea]." Public Broadcasting Service. 2005. Retrieved on February 25, 2006.</ref>

During 1909, Einstein published "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light. In this and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the term itself was introduced by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics.

www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/8165.html Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity]." Princeton University Press. 2006. Retrieved on March 13, 2007. ISBN 9780691123103</ref>//www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/8165.html Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity]." Princeton University Press. 2006. Retrieved on March 13, 2007. ISBN 9780691123103</ref>

In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his alma mater, the ETH. There he met mathematician Marcel Grossmann who introduced him to Riemannian geometry, and at the recommendation of Italian mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the usefulness of general covariance (essentially the use of tensors) for his gravitational theory. Although for a while Einstein thought that there were problems with that approach, he later returned to it and by late 1915 had published his general theory of relativity in the form that is still used today Modèle:Harv. This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter.

After many relocations, Mileva established a permanent home with the children in Zurich in 1914, just before the start of World War I. Einstein continued on alone to Berlin, where he became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. As part of the arrangements for his new position, he also became a professor at the University of Berlin, although with a special clause freeing him from most teaching obligations. From 1914 to 1932 he was also director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for physics.<ref name="Kant">Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin." in Renn, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein - Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn, Jürgen. Wiley-VCH. 2005. pp. 166–169. ISBN = 3527405747</ref>

During World War I, the speeches and writings of Central Powers scientists were available only to Central Powers academics, for national security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and the United States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter of the Leiden University. After the war ended, Einstein maintained his relationship with the Leiden University, accepting a contract as an Extraordinary Professor; he travelled to Holland regularly to lecture there between 1920 and 1930.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/einstein/einstein.html|title=Two friends in Leiden|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref>

In 1917, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser Modèle:Harv. He also published a paper introducing a new notion, a cosmological constant, into the general theory of relativity in an attempt to model the behavior of the entire universe Modèle:Harv.

1917 was the year astronomers began taking Einstein up on his 1911 challenge from Prague. The Mount Wilson Observatory in California, U.S., published a solar spectroscopic analysis that showed no gravitational redshift.<ref>«  »</ref> In 1918, the Lick Observatory, also in California, announced that they too had disproven Einstein's prediction, although their findings were not published<ref>«  »</ref>

www.nature.com/embor/journal/v4/n3/full/embor779.html | accessdate = 2007-03-31 }}</ref> In an interview Nobel laureate Max Born praised general relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about nature";<ref>"

   The genius of space and time//www.nature.com/embor/journal/v4/n3/full/embor779.html
   
 "
  . Retrieved on 2007-03-31
 . </ref> In an interview Nobel laureate Max Born praised general relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about nature";<ref>"
   The genius of space and time
books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/scienceandnature/0,,1571826,00.html
   
 " , The Guardian
  , September 17, 2005
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-03-31
 . </ref> fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was "probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".<ref name="schmidhuber">Schmidhuber, Jürgen. "ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879–1955) and the 'Greatest Scientific Discovery Ever'." 2006. Retrieved on October 4, 2006.</ref>//books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/scienceandnature/0,,1571826,00.html | publisher = The Guardian | date = September 17, 2005 | accessdate = 2007-03-31 }}</ref> fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was "probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".<ref name="schmidhuber">Schmidhuber, Jürgen. "ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879–1955) and the 'Greatest Scientific Discovery Ever'." 2006. Retrieved on October 4, 2006.</ref>

www.mathpages.com/rr/s6-03/6-03.htm Bending Light]</ref>//www.mathpages.com/rr/s6-03/6-03.htm Bending Light]</ref>

There was some resentment toward the newcomer Einstein's fame in the scientific community, notably among German physicists, who later started the Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement.<ref name="Hentschel">Hentschel, Klaus; Hentschel, Ann M. "Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources." Birkhaeuser Verlag. 1996. p. xxi. ISBN 3764353120</ref><ref>For a discussion of astronomers' attitudes and debates about relativity, see Jeffrey Crelinsten, Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity (Princeton University Press, 2006), esp. chapters 6, 9, 10 and 11.</ref>

Having lived apart for five years, Einstein and Mileva divorced on February 14, 1919. On June 2 of that year, Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal, who had nursed him through an illness. Elsa was Albert's first cousin (maternally) and his second cousin (paternally). Together the Einsteins raised Margot and Ilse, Elsa's daughters from her first marriage.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinelsa_content.html|title=Short life history: Elsa Einstein|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref>

Nobel Prize

Image:Albert Einstein photo 1921.jpg
Einstein, 1921. Age 42.

In 1921 Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect: "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time." Modèle:Harv As per their divorce settlement, Einstein gave the Nobel prize money to his first wife, Mileva Marić.

Einstein traveled to New York City in the United States for the first time on April 2, 1921. When asked where he got his scientific ideas, Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an examination of physical reality and a search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations that apply in all instances and avoid contradicting each other. He also recommended theories with visualizable results Modèle:Harv.<ref>See Albert Einstein, "Geometry and Experience," (1921), reprinted in Ideas and Opinions.</ref>

Modèle:Seealso

Unified field theory

Einstein's research after general relativity consisted primarily of a long series of attempts to generalize his theory of gravitation in order to unify and simplify the fundamental laws of physics, particularly gravitation and electromagnetism. In 1950, he described this "Unified Field Theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation" Modèle:Harv.

www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00013319-39C7-1C74-9B81809EC588EF21 | title=A Unified Physics by 2050? | accessdate=2007-10-04}}</ref>//www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00013319-39C7-1C74-9B81809EC588EF21 | title=A Unified Physics by 2050? | accessdate=2007-10-04}}</ref>

Collaboration and conflict

Bose–Einstein statistics

In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose which showed that light could be understood as a gas. Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and Einstein submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that should appear at very low temperatures Modèle:Harv. It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST-JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/n01-04.htm|title=Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics|date=2001-10-09|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of "bosons". Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.<ref name="Instituut-Lorentz">"Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz." Instituut-Lorentz. 2005. Retrieved on November 21, 2005.</ref>

Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger an application of Max Planck's idea of treating energy levels for a gas as a whole rather than for individual molecules, and Schrödinger applied this in a paper using the Boltzmann distribution to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>

Einstein refrigerator

gtalumni.org/StayInformed/magazine/sum98/einsrefr.html Einstein's Refrigerator]." Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine. 1998. Retrieved on November 21, 2005.</ref><ref>On November 11, 1930, Modèle:US patent was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator.</ref>//gtalumni.org/StayInformed/magazine/sum98/einsrefr.html Einstein's Refrigerator]." Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine. 1998. Retrieved on November 21, 2005.</ref><ref>On November 11, 1930, Modèle:US patent was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator.</ref>

Bohr versus Einstein

Image:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg
Einstein and Niels Bohr. Photo taken by Paul Ehrenfest during their visit to Leiden in December 1925.

In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory. Einstein was unhappy with the "Copenhagen interpretation" of quantum theory developed by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, wherein quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with definite states resulting only upon interaction with classical systems. A public debate between Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting for many years (including during the Solvay Conferences). Einstein formulated thought experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice." Modèle:Harv.<ref>A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, ISBN 388682005X</ref>

Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the theory seems to require non-local interactions; this is known as the EPR paradox Modèle:Harv. The EPR experiment has since been performed, with results confirming quantum theory's predictions.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal The first of many experimental tests relating to EPR.</ref>

Einstein's disagreement with Bohr revolved around the idea of scientific determinism. For this reason the repercussions of the Einstein-Bohr debate have found their way into philosophical discourse as well.

Modèle:Seealso

Religious views

The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on theological determinism, and even whether or not he believed in God. In 1929, Einstein told Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein "I believe in Spinoza's God, who reveals Himself in the lawful harmony of the world, not in a God Who concerns Himself with the fate and the doings of mankind."<ref>«  »</ref> In 1950, in a letter to M. Berkowitz, Einstein stated that "My position concerning God is that of an agnostic. I am convinced that a vivid consciousness of the primary importance of moral principles for the betterment and ennoblement of life does not need the idea of a law-giver, especially a law-giver who works on the basis of reward and punishment."<ref>Albert Einstein in a letter to M. Berkowitz, October 25, 1950; Einstein Archive 59-215; from Alice Calaprice, ed., The Expanded Quotable Einstein, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 216.</ref>

Einstein defined his religious views in a letter he wrote in response to those who claimed that he worshipped a Judeo-Christian god: "It was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious convictions, a lie which is being systematically repeated. I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly. If something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for the structure of the world so far as our science can reveal it."<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  John Stachel
   
 


.  

. Retrieved on 2007-02-23. </ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/quotes_einstein.html|accessdate=2007-05-21}}</ref><ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>

By his own definition, Einstein was a deeply religious person: "A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, of the manifestations of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which are only accessible to our reason in their most elementary forms--it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute the truly religious attitude; in this sense, and in this alone, I am a deeply religious man."<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.einsteinandreligion.com/worldsee2.html|accessdate=2007-10-14}}</ref> He published a paper in Nature in 1940 entitled Science and Religion which gave his views on the subject.<ref name="Nature146">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> In this he says that: "a person who is religiously enlightened appears to me to be one who has, to the best of his ability, liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with thoughts, feelings and aspirations to which he clings because of their super-personal value ... regardless of whether any attempt is made to unite this content with a Divine Being, for otherwise it would not be possible to count Buddha and Spinoza as religious personalities. Accordingly a religious person is devout in the sense that he has no doubt of the significance of those super-personal objects and goals which neither require nor are capable of rational foundation ... In this sense religion is the age-old endeavour of mankind to become clearly and completely conscious of these values and goals, and constantly to strengthen their effects." He argues that conflicts between science and religion "have all sprung from fatal errors." However "even though the realms of religion and science in themselves are clearly marked off from each other" there are "strong reciprocal relationships and dependencies" ... "science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind ... a legitimate conflict between science and religion cannot exist." However he makes it clear that he does not believe in a personal God, and suggests that "neither the rule of human nor Divine Will exists as an independent cause of natural events. To be sure, the doctrine of a personal God interfering with natural events could never be refuted ... by science, for [it] can always take refuge in those domains in which scientific knowledge has not yet been able to set foot." Modèle:Harv

His friend Max Jammer explored Einstein's views on religion thoroughly in the 1999 book Einstein and Religion: Physics and Theology.<ref>«  »</ref>

Politics

Image:Figh2.jpg
Einstein and Indian poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore during their widely-publicized July 14, 1930 conversation

With increasing public demands, his involvement in political, humanitarian, and academic projects in various countries, and his new acquaintances with scholars and political figures from around the world, Einstein was less able to achieve the productive isolation that, according to biographer Ronald W. Clark, he needed in order to work.<ref>«  »</ref> Due to his fame and genius, Einstein found himself called on to give conclusive judgments on matters that had nothing to do with theoretical physics or mathematics. He was not timid, and he was aware of the world around him, with no illusion that ignoring politics would make world events fade away. His very visible position allowed him to speak and write frankly, even provocatively, at a time when many people of conscience could only flee to the underground or keep doubts about developments within their own movements to themselves for fear of internecine fighting. Einstein flouted the ascendant Nazi movement, tried to be a voice of moderation in the tumultuous formation of the State of Israel and braved anti-communist politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United States. He participated in the 1927 congress of the League against Imperialism in Brussels.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//san.beck.org/15-4-ChinaCivilWar1927-37.html|title=Nationalist-Communist Civil War 1927-1937|accessdate=2007-10-03}}</ref>

Zionism

Einstein was a cultural Zionist. In 1931, The Macmillan Company published About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein.<ref>ASIN: B00085M906</ref> Querido, an Amsterdam publishing house, collected eleven of Einstein's essays into a 1933 book entitled Mein Weltbild, translated to English as The World as I See It; Einstein's foreword dedicates the collection "to the Jews of Germany".<ref>Available in reprint paperback from Filiquarian Publishing, LLC, ISBN 1599869659.</ref> In the face of Germany's rising militarism, Einstein wrote and spoke for peace.<ref>«  »</ref><ref>See the AMNH site's popup of translated letter from Freud, in the section "Freud and Einstein", regarding proposed joint presentation on "What can be done to rid mankind of the menace of war?"</ref>

Image:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG
Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr. Vera Weizmann, Menachem Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921.

Despite his years of Zionist efforts, Einstein publicly stated reservations about the proposal to partition the British-supervised British Mandate of Palestine into independent Arab and Jewish countries. In a 1938 speech, "Our Debt to Zionism", he said: "I am afraid of the inner damage Judaism will sustain—especially from the development of a narrow nationalism within our own ranks, against which we have already had to fight strongly, even without a Jewish state."<ref>«  »</ref>

The United Nations did divide the mandate, demarcating the borders of several new countries including the State of Israel, and war broke out immediately. Einstein was one of the authors of a 1948 letter to the New York Times criticizing Menachem Begin's Revisionist Herut (Freedom) Party for the Deir Yassin massacre Modèle:Harv. albert-einstein.org/history5.html www.pugwash.org/publication/phs/history9.pdf//albert-einstein.org/ | access-date =2007-03-25 }}</ref>//albert-einstein.org/history5.html www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf//albert-einstein.org/ | access-date =2007-03-25 }}</ref>

www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm | access-date =2007-03-14 }}</ref>//www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm | access-date =2007-03-14 }}</ref>

Nazism

In January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. One of the first actions of Hitler's administration was the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service which removed Jews and politically suspect government employees (including university professors) from their jobs, unless they had demonstrated their loyalty to Germany by serving in World War I. In December 1932, in response to this growing threat, Einstein had prudently traveled to the U.S. For several years he had been wintering at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California,<ref>Clark, R. "Einstein: The Life and Times" Harper-Collins, 1984. 880 pp.</ref> and also was a guest lecturer at Abraham Flexner's newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.

www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm | access-date =2007-03-14 }}</ref><ref>The International Rescue Committee gives support and shelter to refugees of social and political persecution.</ref>//www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm | access-date =2007-03-14 }}</ref><ref>The International Rescue Committee gives support and shelter to refugees of social and political persecution.</ref>

Meanwhile in Germany, a campaign to eliminate Einstein's work from the German lexicon as unacceptable "Jewish physics" (Jüdische physik) was led by Nobel laureates Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark. Deutsche Physik activists published pamphlets and even textbooks denigrating Einstein, and instructors who taught his theories were blacklisted—including Nobel laureate Werner Heisenberg, who had debated quantum probability with Bohr and Einstein. Philipp Lenard claimed that the mass–energy equivalence formula needed to be credited to Friedrich Hasenöhrl to make it an Aryan creation.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.mathpages.com/rr/s8-08/8-08.htm|title=MathPages - Reflections on Relativity: Who Invented Relativity?|accessdate=2007-06-25}}</ref><ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//ame.epfl.ch/biblio/schlatter1.pdf|title=Philipp Lenard et la physique aryenne|author=Christian Schlatter|publisher=École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|date=April 2002|accessdate=2007-06-25}}</ref>

Einstein became a citizen of the United States in 1940, although he retained his Swiss citizenship.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.aip.org/history/einstein/chron.htm|title=An Albert Einstein Chronology|accessdate=2007-08-06}}</ref>

Image:Citizen-Einstein.jpg
Albert Einstein receiving his certificate of American citizenship from Judge Phillip Forman.

Atomic bomb

Image:Einstein-Roosevelt-letter.png
Einstein-Szilárd letter

www.mphpa.org/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=172| accessdate = 2007-05-26 }}</ref>//www.mphpa.org/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=172| accessdate = 2007-05-26 }}</ref>

The United States took stock of this warning, and within five years, the U.S. created its own nuclear weapons, and used them on the Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima. According to chemist and author Linus Pauling, Einstein later expressed regret about the Einstein-Szilárd letter.<ref>"Scientist Tells of Einstein's A-bomb Regrets". The Philadelphia Bulletin, 13 May 1955.</ref>

eprints.lse.ac.uk/archive/00000736/ "The campaign to sell a harsh peace for Germany to the American public, 1944–1948"]. History, 90 (297). pp. 62–92. (2005) ISSN 1468-229X</ref>//eprints.lse.ac.uk/archive/00000736/ "The campaign to sell a harsh peace for Germany to the American public, 1944–1948"]. History, 90 (297). pp. 62–92. (2005) ISSN 1468-229X</ref>

Cold War era

When he was a visible figure working against the rise of Nazism, Einstein had sought help and developed working relationships in both the West and what was to become the Soviet bloc. After World War II, enmity between the former allies became a very serious issue for people with international résumés. To make things worse, during the first days of McCarthyism Einstein was writing about a single world government; it was at this time that he wrote, "I do not know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth—rocks!"<ref>«  » Other versions of the quote exist.</ref> In a 1949 Monthly Review article entitled "Why Socialism?"<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1132/is_n8_v40/ai_6944290|title=Why Socialism?|accessdate=2007-06-30}}</ref> Albert Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development" Modèle:Harv. With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Butcher , Sandra Ionno 
     
 

     (May 2005
www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf//www.pugwash.org/publication/phs/history9.pdf)
   
.  
. Council of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs 
   

. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.

</ref>

Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups, including the Princeton chapter of the NAACP. When the aged W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair of the American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted 20 years.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2007/04.12/01-einstein.html|title=Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist|date=2007-04-12|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref>

www.brandeis.edu/publications/review/50threview/einstein.pdf | access-date =2007-03-25 }}</ref> The collaboration was stormy, however. Finally, when Einstein wanted to appoint British economist Harold J. Laski as the university's president, Alpert wrote that Laski was "a man utterly alien to American principles of democracy, tarred with the Communist brush."<ref name="Reis"/> Einstein withdrew his support and barred the use of his name.<ref>«  »</ref> The university opened in 1948 as Brandeis University. In 1953, Brandeis offered Einstein an honorary degree, but he declined.<ref name="Reis"/>//www.brandeis.edu/publications/review/50threview/einstein.pdf | access-date =2007-03-25 }}</ref> The collaboration was stormy, however. Finally, when Einstein wanted to appoint British economist Harold J. Laski as the university's president, Alpert wrote that Laski was "a man utterly alien to American principles of democracy, tarred with the Communist brush."<ref name="Reis"/> Einstein withdrew his support and barred the use of his name.<ref>«  »</ref> The university opened in 1948 as Brandeis University. In 1953, Brandeis offered Einstein an honorary degree, but he declined.<ref name="Reis"/>

www.wsws.org/articles/2002/sep2002/eins-s03.shtml | title=The FBI and Albert Einstein}}</ref> that grew to 1,427 pages. Many of the documents in the file were sent to the FBI by concerned citizens: some objecting to his immigration, while others asked the FBI to protect him.<ref>«  »</ref>//www.wsws.org/articles/2002/sep2002/eins-s03.shtml | title=The FBI and Albert Einstein}}</ref> that grew to 1,427 pages. Many of the documents in the file were sent to the FBI by concerned citizens: some objecting to his immigration, while others asked the FBI to protect him.<ref>«  »</ref>

Although Einstein had long been sympathetic to the notion of vegetarianism, it was only near the start of 1954 that he adopted a strict vegetarian diet.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.ivu.org/history/northam20a/einstein.html|title=History of Vegetarianism - Albert Einstein|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref>

Death

On April 17, 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an aortic aneurism.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.medscape.com/viewarticle/436253|title=The Case of the Scientist with a Pulsating Mass|date=2002-06-14|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> He took a draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.<ref>«  »</ref> He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76. Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered.<ref>«  »</ref><ref>"

   Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76. World Mourns Loss of Great Scientist.
   
 " , New York Times
  , April 19, 1955, Tuesday
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-07-21
 .  "Princeton, New Jersey, April 18, 1955. Dr. Albert Einstein, one of the great thinkers of the ages, died in his sleep here early today."
  </ref>

Before the cremation, Princeton Hospital pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation, in hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4602913|title=The Long, Strange Journey of Einstein's Brain|accessdate=2007-10-03}}</ref>

Legacy

query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DEFD9153FF931A25754C0A960948260]</ref>). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.<ref>«  »</ref>//query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DEFD9153FF931A25754C0A960948260]</ref>). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.<ref>«  »</ref>

The United States' National Academy of Sciences commissioned the Albert Einstein Memorial, a monumental bronze and marble sculpture by Robert Berks, dedicated in 1979 at its Washington, D.C. campus adjacent to the National Mall.

www.albert-einstein.net/index2.html | access-date =2007-03-25 }}</ref>//www.albert-einstein.net/index2.html | access-date =2007-03-25 }}</ref>

Honors

Modèle:Seealso

In 1999, Albert Einstein was named "Person of the Century" by Time magazine,<ref>«  »</ref><ref>«  »</ref> the Gallup Poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the 20th century<ref>Modèle:Cite webphiloscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.galluppoll.com/content/?ci=3367&pg=1|title=Mother Teresa Voted by American People as Most Admired Person of the Century|date=1999-12-31|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> and according to The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, Einstein is "the greatest scientist of the twentieth century and one of the supreme intellects of all time."<ref>«  »</ref>

Image:Einstein Memorial.jpg
Albert Einstein Memorial located on the public grounds of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.

A partial list of his memorials:

In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple.<ref>Modèle:Cite web philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf</ref> On May 14, 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born. Their second son, Eduard Einstein, was born on July 28, 1910.//www.walhalla-regensburg.de/deutsch/index.shtml |title= Walhalla Ruhmes- und Ehrenhalle |accessdate=2007-10-03 |language=German }}</ref>

Impact on popular culture

www.newyorker.com/search/query?queryType=nonparsed&query=Einstein+&bylquery=Maloney&month1=01&day1=14&year1=1939&month2=01&day2=14&year2=1939&page=&sort=&submit.x=10&submit.y=5 Disguise]</ref>//www.newyorker.com/search/query?queryType=nonparsed&query=Einstein+&bylquery=Maloney&month1=01&day1=14&year1=1939&month2=01&day2=14&year2=1939&page=&sort=&submit.x=10&submit.y=5 Disguise]</ref>

Albert Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, and plays. Einstein is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true."<ref>«  »</ref>

See also

Publications

The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at Works by Albert Einstein.

  • «  »
  • «  ». This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik March 18.
  • «  ». This PhD thesis was completed April 30 and submitted July 20.
  • «  ». This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian motion was received May 11.
  • «  ». This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received June 30.
  • «  ». This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received September 27.
  • «  »
  • «  »
  • «  »
  • «  »
  • «  ». First of a series of papers on this topic.
  • «  ». On Baer's law and meanders in the courses of rivers.
  • «  »
  • «  »
  • «  »
  • «  »
  • «  »
  • «  »
  • «  »
  • «  ». The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.

www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html Einstein Papers Project].//www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html Einstein Papers Project].

Notes

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External links

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Modèle:Academia

Modèle:Nobel Prize in Physics Laureates 1901-1925

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