2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

Un article de Vev.

Modèle:Pp-semi-protected Modèle:Featured article Modèle:Earthquake The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea earthquake that occurred at 00:58:53 UTC (07:58:53 local time) December 26, 2004, with an epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The earthquake triggered a series of devastating tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing more than 225,000 people in eleven countries, and inundating coastal communities with waves up to Modèle:M to ft. This was the ninth-deadliest natural disaster in modern history. Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, and Myanmar were hardest hit.

edition.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/05/19/sumatra.quake/index.html Scientists: Sumatra quake longest ever recorded]." CNN. May 20 2005</ref> and triggered other earthquakes as far away as Alaska.<ref>West, Michael; Sanches, John J.; McNutt, Stephen R. "Periodically Triggered Seismicity at Mount Wrangell, Alaska, After the Sumatra Earthquake." Science. Vol. 308, No. 5725, 1144–1146. May 20, 2005.</ref>//edition.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/05/19/sumatra.quake/index.html Scientists: Sumatra quake longest ever recorded]." CNN. May 20 2005</ref> and triggered other earthquakes as far away as Alaska.<ref>West, Michael; Sanches, John J.; McNutt, Stephen R. "Periodically Triggered Seismicity at Mount Wrangell, Alaska, After the Sumatra Earthquake." Science. Vol. 308, No. 5725, 1144–1146. May 20, 2005.</ref>

The disaster is known by the scientific community as the Great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake,<ref>Lay, T., Kanamori, H., Ammon, C., Nettles, M., Ward, S., Aster, R., Beck, S., Bilek, S., Brudzinski, M., Butler, R., DeShon, H., Ekström, G., Satake, K., Sipkin, S., The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of December 26, 2004, Science, 308, 1127–1133, doi:10.1126/science.1112250, 2005</ref> and is also known as the Asian Tsunami and the Boxing Day Tsunami. The tsunami occurred exactly one year after the 2003 Bam earthquake and exactly two years before the 2006 Hengchun earthquake.

The plight of the many affected people and countries prompted a widespread humanitarian response. In all, the worldwide community donated more than $7 billion (2004 U.S. dollars) in humanitarian aid. Modèle:2004 tsunami

Earthquake characteristics

www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6991 Power of tsunami earthquake heavily underestimated]." New Scientist. February 9, 2005.</ref> Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has so far not changed its estimate of 9.1. The most recent studies in 2006 have obtained a magnitude of M_w 9.1 to 9.3. Dr. Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology believes that M_w = 9.2 is a good representative value for the size of this great earthquake.<ref>EERI Publication 2006–06, page 14.</ref>//www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6991 Power of tsunami earthquake heavily underestimated]." New Scientist. February 9, 2005.</ref> Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has so far not changed its estimate of 9.1. The most recent studies in 2006 have obtained a magnitude of M_w 9.1 to 9.3. Dr. Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology believes that M_w = 9.2 is a good representative value for the size of this great earthquake.<ref>EERI Publication 2006–06, page 14.</ref>

The hypocentre of the main earthquake was at Modèle:Coor d, approximately 160 km (100 mi), in the Indian Ocean just north of Simeulue island, off the western coast of northern Sumatra, at a depth of 30 km (19 mi) below mean sea level (initially reported as 10 km). The earthquake itself (apart from the tsunami) was felt as far away as Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore and the Maldives.

Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the north-eastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores, and Timor.

Great earthquakes such as the Sumatra-Andaman event, which are invariably associated with megathrust events in subduction zones, have seismic moments that can account for a significant fraction of the global earthquake moment across century-scale time periods. The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake was the largest earthquake since 1964, and the second largest since the Kamchatka earthquake of October 16 1737.

Of all the seismic moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly one-eighth was due to the Sumatra-Andaman event. This quake, together with the Good Friday Earthquake (Alaska, 1964) and the Great Chilean Earthquake (1960), account for almost half of the total moment. The much smaller but still catastrophic 1906 San Francisco earthquake is included in the diagram at right for perspective. M_w denotes the magnitude of an earthquake on the moment magnitude scale.

neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/world/1952_11_04.html Kamchatka Earthquake, November 4, 1952]." United States Geological Survey.</ref> Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean, but the death toll from these was significantly lower. The worst of these caused only a few thousand deaths, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas and the much greater distances to more populated coasts.//neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/world/1952_11_04.html Kamchatka Earthquake, November 4, 1952]." United States Geological Survey.</ref> Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean, but the death toll from these was significantly lower. The worst of these caused only a few thousand deaths, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas and the much greater distances to more populated coasts.

Other very large megathrust earthquakes occurred in 1868 (Peru, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1827 (Colombia, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1812 (Venezuela, Caribbean Plate and South American Plate) and 1700 (Cascadia Earthquake, western U.S. and Canada, Juan de Fuca Plate and North American Plate). These are all believed to have been of greater than magnitude 9, but no accurate measurements were available at the time.

Tectonic plates

www.ldeo.columbia.edu/news/2005/07_20_05.htm The Sound of a Distant Rumble: Researchers Track Underwater Noise Generated by December 26 Earthquake]." Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. July 20, 2005.</ref>//www.ldeo.columbia.edu/news/2005/07_20_05.htm The Sound of a Distant Rumble: Researchers Track Underwater Noise Generated by December 26 Earthquake]." Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. July 20, 2005.</ref>

The India Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is drifting north-east at an average of 6 cm/year (2 inches per year). The India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands and northern Sumatra. The India Plate slips deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the crust above and trigger melt which exits the earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian plate subducts the Eurasian plate has created the Sunda Arc.

www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;308/5725/1126 A Flying Start, Then a Slow Slip]." Science. Vol. 308, No. 5725, 1126–1127. May 20, 2005.</ref>//www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;308/5725/1126 A Flying Start, Then a Slow Slip]." Science. Vol. 308, No. 5725, 1126–1127. May 20, 2005.</ref>

Aftershocks and other earthquakes

www.investors.com/breakingnews.asp?journalid=26681113&brk=1 8.7 quake jars Sumatra, at least 300 dead]." Investors.com. March 28, 2005.</ref> prompting debate among seismologists as to whether it should be classified as an aftershock of the December 2004 quake or as a "triggered earthquake" (which typically differs from an aftershock in that it is not located along the same fault line and may be as large or larger than the earthquake which triggered it).<ref> McKernon , Conor

.    Science and Engineering at The University of Edinburgh School of Geosciences 

. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. </ref> This earthquake was so large that it produced its own aftershocks (some registering a magnitude of as great as 6.1) and presently ranks as the 7th largest earthquake on record since 1900. Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to shake the region daily for up to three or four months.<ref>Staff Writer. "Sumatra shaken by new earthquake." BBC News. April 10, 2005.</ref><ref>"Panic in Sumatra after new earthquake." WIKINEWS. April 10, 2005.</ref> As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data about the Earth's interior.//www.investors.com/breakingnews.asp?journalid=26681113&brk=1 8.7 quake jars Sumatra, at least 300 dead]." Investors.com. March 28, 2005.</ref> prompting debate among seismologists as to whether it should be classified as an aftershock of the December 2004 quake or as a "triggered earthquake" (which typically differs from an aftershock in that it is not located along the same fault line and may be as large or larger than the earthquake which triggered it).<ref> McKernon , Conor

.    Science and Engineering at The University of Edinburgh School of Geosciences 

. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. </ref> This earthquake was so large that it produced its own aftershocks (some registering a magnitude of as great as 6.1) and presently ranks as the 7th largest earthquake on record since 1900. Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to shake the region daily for up to three or four months.<ref>Staff Writer. "Sumatra shaken by new earthquake." BBC News. April 10, 2005.</ref><ref>"Panic in Sumatra after new earthquake." WIKINEWS. April 10, 2005.</ref> As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data about the Earth's interior.

earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/faq.php USGS Earthquake Hazards Program: FAQ].</ref> Some seismologists have speculated about a connection between these two earthquakes, saying that the former one might have been a catalyst to the Indian Ocean earthquake, as the two earthquakes happened on opposite sides of the Indo-Australian Plate. However, the U.S. Geological Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship in this incident. Coincidentally, the earthquake struck almost exactly one year (to the hour) after a 6.6 magnitude earthquake killed an estimated 30,000 people in the city of Bam in Iran on December 26, 2003.<ref> Earthquake-Tsunami Event of Christmas/Boxing Day 2004: Frames of Alternative Analysis or Perception

. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. </ref>//earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/faq.php USGS Earthquake Hazards Program: FAQ].</ref> Some seismologists have speculated about a connection between these two earthquakes, saying that the former one might have been a catalyst to the Indian Ocean earthquake, as the two earthquakes happened on opposite sides of the Indo-Australian Plate. However, the U.S. Geological Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship in this incident. Coincidentally, the earthquake struck almost exactly one year (to the hour) after a 6.6 magnitude earthquake killed an estimated 30,000 people in the city of Bam in Iran on December 26, 2003.<ref> Earthquake-Tsunami Event of Christmas/Boxing Day 2004: Frames of Alternative Analysis or Perception

. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. </ref>

www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1317370,00050004.htm Thousands flee as Indonesian volcano spews into life]." Hindustan Times. April 12, 2005.</ref> Geologists say that the eruption of Mount Talang in April 2005 is connected to the December earthquake.<ref> Johnston , Tim

       (April 13, 2005)
     
   
 
.    Indonesian Volcanoes Erupt; Thousands Evacuated 
. VOA News 
   

. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. </ref>//www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1317370,00050004.htm Thousands flee as Indonesian volcano spews into life]." Hindustan Times. April 12, 2005.</ref> Geologists say that the eruption of Mount Talang in April 2005 is connected to the December earthquake.<ref> Johnston , Tim

       (April 13, 2005)
     
   
 
.    Indonesian Volcanoes Erupt; Thousands Evacuated 
. VOA News 
   

. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. </ref>

Energy released by the earthquake

neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/neic_slav_e.html USGS Energy and Broadband Solution]</ref> or 26.3 megatons of TNT. This energy is equivalent to over 1502 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated. However, this is but a tiny fraction of the total work done M_W (and thus energy) by this quake, 4.0×10²⁹ ergs (40 ZJ)<ref>USGS, Harvard Moment Tensor Solution</ref>, the vast majority underground. This equates to 4.0×10²² J, over 363 thousand times more than its M_E. This is a truly enormous figure, equivalent to 9,560 gigatons of TNT equivalent (550 million times that of Hiroshima), or about 370 years of energy use in the United States at 2005 levels of 1.08×10²⁰ J.//neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/neic_slav_e.html USGS Energy and Broadband Solution]</ref> or 26.3 megatons of TNT. This energy is equivalent to over 1502 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated. However, this is but a tiny fraction of the total work done M_W (and thus energy) by this quake, 4.0×10²⁹ ergs (40 ZJ)<ref>USGS, Harvard Moment Tensor Solution</ref>, the vast majority underground. This equates to 4.0×10²² J, over 363 thousand times more than its M_E. This is a truly enormous figure, equivalent to 9,560 gigatons of TNT equivalent (550 million times that of Hiroshima), or about 370 years of energy use in the United States at 2005 levels of 1.08×10²⁰ J.

earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topics/measure.php USGS:Measuring the size of earthquakes]</ref> Please see USGS:Measuring the size of earthquakes.//earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topics/measure.php USGS:Measuring the size of earthquakes]</ref> Please see USGS:Measuring the size of earthquakes.

The earthquake generated seismic oscillation of the Earth's surface of up to 20–30 cm (8–12 in), equivalent to the effect of the tidal forces caused by the Sun and Moon. The shock waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet; as far away as the U.S. state of Oklahoma, where vertical movements of 3 mm (0.12 in) were recorded.

Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe, particularly due to huge Rayleigh (surface) elastic waves that exceeded 1 cm in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The record section plot below displays vertical displacements of the Earth's surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time (since the earthquake initiation) on the horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicenter in degrees. The earliest, lower amplitude, signal is that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the antipode; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the 200 minute mark. This aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances, but is dwarfed by the mainshock.

www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/jan/HQ_05011_earthquake.html NASA Details Earthquake Effects on the Earth]." National Aeronautics and Space Administration (press release). January 10, 2005.</ref> It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in the direction of 145° east longitude,<ref>Schechner, Sam. "Earthquakes vs. the Earth's Rotation." Slate. December 27, 2004.</ref> or perhaps by up to 5 or 6 cm (2.0 to 2.4 in).<ref>Staff Writer. "Italian scientists say Asian quakes cause Earth's axis shifted." Xinhua. December 29, 2004.</ref> However, because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a day increases at an average of 15 µs per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobble of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to 15 m (50 ft), will eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake.//www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/jan/HQ_05011_earthquake.html NASA Details Earthquake Effects on the Earth]." National Aeronautics and Space Administration (press release). January 10, 2005.</ref> It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in the direction of 145° east longitude,<ref>Schechner, Sam. "Earthquakes vs. the Earth's Rotation." Slate. December 27, 2004.</ref> or perhaps by up to 5 or 6 cm (2.0 to 2.4 in).<ref>Staff Writer. "Italian scientists say Asian quakes cause Earth's axis shifted." Xinhua. December 29, 2004.</ref> However, because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a day increases at an average of 15 µs per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobble of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to 15 m (50 ft), will eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake.

More spectacularly, there was 10 m (33 ft) movement laterally and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have moved south-west by up to 36 m (118 ft), but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about 20 cm (7.9 in).<ref> Staff Writer

  . 
 "
   Quake moved Sumatra by only 20 centimeters: Danish scientists
   
 " , Agence France Presse , January 31, 2005
 
 . </ref> Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted south-west by around 1.25 m (4.1 ft) and to have sunk by 1 m (3.28 ft).<ref>   Bagla , Pallava 
       
   
  . 
 "
   After the Earth Moved
   
 " , Science Now , January 28, 2005
 
 . </ref>

www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6994 Asian tsunami seabed pictured with sonar]." New Scientist. February 10, 2005.</ref>//www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6994 Asian tsunami seabed pictured with sonar]." New Scientist. February 10, 2005.</ref>

topex-www.jpl.nasa.gov/newsroom/press-releases/20050111.html NASA/French Satellite Data Reveal New Details of Tsunami]." Jet Propulsion Laboratory/National Aeronautics and Space Administration. January 11, 2005.</ref> These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies of the order of 50 cm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami.<ref>TOPEX/Poseidon Satellite Data on the December 26, 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean. Aviso.</ref> Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which close proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.//topex-www.jpl.nasa.gov/newsroom/press-releases/20050111.html NASA/French Satellite Data Reveal New Details of Tsunami]." Jet Propulsion Laboratory/National Aeronautics and Space Administration. January 11, 2005.</ref> These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies of the order of 50 cm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami.<ref>TOPEX/Poseidon Satellite Data on the December 26, 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean. Aviso.</ref> Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which close proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.

Tsunami characteristics

The sudden vertical rise of the seabed by several metres during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water, resulting in a tsunami that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean. A tsunami which causes damage far away from its source is sometimes called a "teletsunami", and is much more likely to be produced by vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontal motion.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>

seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/211012_tsunamiscience07.html New findings super-size our tsunami threat]." Seattlepi.com. February 7, 2005.</ref>//seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/211012_tsunamiscience07.html New findings super-size our tsunami threat]." Seattlepi.com. February 7, 2005.</ref>

www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2005/s2365.htm NOAA Scientists able to Measure Tsunami Height from Space]." NOAA Magazine. January 10, 2005.</ref><ref>McKee, Maggie. "Radar satellites capture tsunami wave height." New Scientist. January 6, 2005.</ref>//www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2005/s2365.htm NOAA Scientists able to Measure Tsunami Height from Space]." NOAA Magazine. January 10, 2005.</ref><ref>McKee, Maggie. "Radar satellites capture tsunami wave height." New Scientist. January 6, 2005.</ref>

www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18524825.100 Tsunami: The impact will last for decades]." New Scientist. January 15, 2005.</ref>//www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18524825.100 Tsunami: The impact will last for decades]." New Scientist. January 15, 2005.</ref>

Because the Modèle:Km to mi fault affected by the earthquake was in a nearly north-south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east-west direction. Bangladesh, which lies at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal, had very few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicenter. It also benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region.

Coasts that have a landmass between them and the tsunami's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can sometimes diffract around such landmasses. Thus, the Indian state of Kerala was hit by the tsunami despite being on the western coast of India, and the western coast of Sri Lanka also suffered substantial impacts. Also distance alone is no guarantee of safety; Somalia was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away.

tsun.sscc.ru/tsulab/20041226trt.htm Tsunami Laboratory, Novosibirsk, Russia].</ref><ref>Time travel map: Active Fault Research Center: National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Japan.</ref> The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit very quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. Thailand was also struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre, because the tsunami travelled more slowly in the shallow Andaman Sea off its western coast.//tsun.sscc.ru/tsulab/20041226trt.htm Tsunami Laboratory, Novosibirsk, Russia].</ref><ref>Time travel map: Active Fault Research Center: National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Japan.</ref> The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit very quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. Thailand was also struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre, because the tsunami travelled more slowly in the shallow Andaman Sea off its western coast.

www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/KANKYO/KAIYO/KOUHOU/iotunami/iotunami_eng.html "Indian Ocean Tsunami" at Syowa Station, Antarctica], Hydrographic and Oceanographic Dept. Japan Coast Guard.</ref>//www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/KANKYO/KAIYO/KOUHOU/iotunami/iotunami_eng.html "Indian Ocean Tsunami" at Syowa Station, Antarctica], Hydrographic and Oceanographic Dept. Japan Coast Guard.</ref>

wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/IndianOSite/IndianO12-26-04.htm Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26 December, 2004]. West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (USGS). December 31, 2004.</ref> At Manzanillo, Mexico, a 2.6 m (8.5 ft) crest-to-trough tsunami was measured. As well, the tsunami was large enough to be detected in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. This puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorised that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the mid-ocean ridges which run along the margins of the continental plates.<ref>Carey, Bjorn. "Tsunami Waves Channeled Around the Globe in 2004 Disaster." LiveScience. August 25, 2005.</ref>//wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/IndianOSite/IndianO12-26-04.htm Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26 December, 2004]. West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (USGS). December 31, 2004.</ref> At Manzanillo, Mexico, a 2.6 m (8.5 ft) crest-to-trough tsunami was measured. As well, the tsunami was large enough to be detected in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. This puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorised that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the mid-ocean ridges which run along the margins of the continental plates.<ref>Carey, Bjorn. "Tsunami Waves Channeled Around the Globe in 2004 Disaster." LiveScience. August 25, 2005.</ref>

Signs and warnings

Despite a lag of up to several hours between the earthquake and the impact of the tsunami, nearly all of the victims were taken completely by surprise. There were no tsunami warning systems in the Indian Ocean to detect tsunamis or to warn the general populace living around the ocean. Tsunami detection is not easy because while a tsunami is in deep water it has little height and a network of sensors is needed to detect it. Setting up the communications infrastructure to issue timely warnings is an even bigger problem, particularly in a relatively poor part of the world.

Tsunamis are much more frequent in the Pacific Ocean because of earthquakes in the "Ring of Fire", and an effective tsunami warning system has long been in place there. Although the extreme western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where this earthquake struck), no warning system exists in that ocean. Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia. The last major tsunami was caused by the Krakatoa eruption of 1883. It should be noted that not every earthquake produces large tsunamis; on March 28, 2005, a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami.

In the aftermath of the disaster, there is now an awareness of the need for a tsunami warning system for the Indian Ocean. The United Nations started working on an Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System and by 2005 had the initial steps in place. Some have even proposed creating a unified global tsunami warning system, to include the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean.

www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4246573 Sri Lankans Seek Lost Relatives After Tsunami]." All Things Considered/NPR. December 27, 2004.</ref>//www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4246573 Sri Lankans Seek Lost Relatives After Tsunami]." All Things Considered/NPR. December 27, 2004.</ref>

www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,18690-1422835,00.html Tsunami disaster: Focus: Nature's timebomb]." Times Online. January 2, 2005.</ref> On Maikhao beach in northern Phuket, Thailand, a 10-year-old British tourist named Tilly Smith had studied tsunami in geography class at school and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles. She and her parents warned others on the beach, which was evacuated safely.<ref>Staff Writer. "Girl, 10, used geography lesson to save lives." news.telegraph. January 1, 2005.</ref> John Chroston, a biology teacher from Scotland, also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and locals to safety on higher ground.//www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,18690-1422835,00.html Tsunami disaster: Focus: Nature's timebomb]." Times Online. January 2, 2005.</ref> On Maikhao beach in northern Phuket, Thailand, a 10-year-old British tourist named Tilly Smith had studied tsunami in geography class at school and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles. She and her parents warned others on the beach, which was evacuated safely.<ref>Staff Writer. "Girl, 10, used geography lesson to save lives." news.telegraph. January 1, 2005.</ref> John Chroston, a biology teacher from Scotland, also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and locals to safety on higher ground.

Retreat and rise cycle

The tsunami was a succession of several waves, occurring in retreat and rise cycles with a period of over 30 minutes between each peak. The third wave was the most powerful and reached highest, occurring about an hour and a half after the first wave. Smaller tsunamis continued to occur for the rest of the day.

Second tsunami wave starting to retreat, Kata Noi Beach, Thailand, 10:17 a.m.

Receding waters after the second tsunami, 10:20 a.m.

3rd tsunami wave, 11:00 a.m.

4th tsunami wave, 11:22 a.m.

Damage and casualties

www.asianews.it/view.php?l=en&art=2255 Myanmar is withholding true casualties figures, says Thai priest]". A missioner in Ranong, a town on the border between Thailand and Myanmar, says locals talk about 600 victims. Burmese political dissidents say the same. AsiaNews.it. January 4 2005. URL accessed 2006-05-07.</ref> If the higher Myanmar figures are reliable, the death toll would include at least 230,000 people. Measured in lives lost, this is one of the ten worst earthquakes in recorded history, as well as the single worst tsunami in history.//www.asianews.it/view.php?l=en&art=2255 Myanmar is withholding true casualties figures, says Thai priest]". A missioner in Ranong, a town on the border between Thailand and Myanmar, says locals talk about 600 victims. Burmese political dissidents say the same. AsiaNews.it. January 4 2005. URL accessed 2006-05-07.</ref> If the higher Myanmar figures are reliable, the death toll would include at least 230,000 people. Measured in lives lost, this is one of the ten worst earthquakes in recorded history, as well as the single worst tsunami in history.

The tsunami caused serious damage and deaths as far as the east coast of Africa, with the farthest recorded death due to the tsunami occurring at Rooi Els in South Africa, Modèle:Km to mi away from the epicentre. In total, eight people in South Africa died due to abnormally high sea levels and waves.

news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4383573.stm Most tsunami dead female - Oxfam]." BBC News. March 26, 2005.</ref>//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4383573.stm Most tsunami dead female - Oxfam]." BBC News. March 26, 2005.</ref>

news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7072934.stm]." BBC. November 1, 2007.</ref>//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7072934.stm]." BBC. November 1, 2007.</ref>

States of emergency were declared in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Maldives. The United Nations estimated at the outset that the relief operation (which is presently still underway) would be the costliest in human history. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan has stated that reconstruction would probably take between five and ten years. Governments and non-governmental organisations fear the final death toll may double as a result of diseases, prompting a massive humanitarian response.

For purposes of establishing timelines of local events, the time zones of affected areas are: UTC+3: (Kenya, Madagascar, Somalia, Tanzania); UTC+4: (Mauritius, Réunion, Seychelles); UTC+5: (Maldives); UTC+5:30: (India); UTC+6: (Bangladesh, Sri Lanka); UTC+6:30: (Cocos Islands, Myanmar); UTC+7: (Indonesia (western), Thailand); UTC+8: (Malaysia, Singapore). Since the earthquake occurred at 00:58:53 UTC, add the above offsets to find the local time of the earthquake.

Countries affected

Main article: Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

The earthquake and resulting tsunami affected many countries in Southeast Asia and beyond, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, the Maldives, Somalia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Seychelles and others. Many other countries, especially Australia and those in Europe, had large numbers of citizens traveling in the region on holiday. Both Sweden and Germany lost over 500 citizens each in the disaster.

Event in historical context

earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.php Most Destructive Known Earthquakes on Record in the World (Earthquakes with 50,000 or More Deaths)]. United States Geological Survey.</ref>//earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.php Most Destructive Known Earthquakes on Record in the World (Earthquakes with 50,000 or More Deaths)]. United States Geological Survey.</ref>

Modèle:Deadliest earthquakes The 2004 tsunami is the deadliest in recorded history. Prior to 2004, the deadliest recorded tsunami in the Pacific Ocean was in 1782, when 40,000 people were killed by a tsunami in the South China Sea.<ref>Modèle:Ja iconNot Awa, Japan 1703, alleged 100,000, which is probably a misreading of the 10,000 toll given in Watanabe, H., 1998, "Nihon higai tsunami so_ran, dai ni-han " (Comprehensive list of destructive tsunamis to hit the Japanese islands, 2ndedition): Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press, p. 238</ref> The tsunami created by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa is thought to have resulted in 36,000 deaths. The most deadly tsunami between 1900 and 2004 occurred in 1908 in Messina, Italy, on the Mediterranean Sea, where the earthquake and tsunami killed 70,000. The most deadly tsunami in the Atlantic Ocean resulted from the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, which, combined with the toll from the actual earthquake and resulting fires, killed over 100,000.

The 2004 earthquake and tsunami combined have been described as the deadliest natural disaster since either the 1976 Tangshan earthquake or the 1970 Bhola cyclone, or could conceivably exceed both of these. Because of uncertainty over death tolls, it might never be known for sure which of these natural disasters was the deadliest.

See also: Library damage resulting from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

Human component in magnitude of damage

The human destruction of coral reefs played a significant role in the destruction caused by the tsunami. Many countries across Asia, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, have put forth efforts to destroy the coral surrounding their beaches, and instead make way for shrimp farms and other economic choices. On the Surin Island chain of Thailand's coast, many people were saved as the tsunami rushed against the coral reefs protecting the islands. However, there were many fewer people on these islands, which helps explain the lower death toll. Many reefs areas around the Indian Ocean have been exploded with dynamite because they are considered impediments to shipping, an important part of the South Asian economy.<ref name="WSJ"> Browne , Andrew

  . 
 "
   Tsunami's Aftermath: On Asia's Coasts, Progress Destroys Natural Defenses
   
 " , Wall Street Journal , December 31, 2004
  , p. A5
   
 . </ref> Similarly, the removal of coastal mangrove trees is believed to have intensified the effect of the tsunami in some locations. These trees, which lined the coast but were removed to make way for coastal residences, might have blocked the force of the tsunami. Another factor is the removal of coastal sand dunes.<ref name="WSJ"/>

Humanitarian, economic and environmental impact

Main article: Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

A great deal of humanitarian aid was needed because of widespread damage of the infrastructure, shortages of food and water, and economic damage. Epidemics were of special concern due to the high population density and tropical climate of the affected areas. The main concern of humanitarian and government agencies was to provide sanitation facilities and fresh drinking water to contain the spread of diseases such as cholera, diphtheria, dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis A and B.

news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4157947.stm UN upbeat on tsunami hunger aid]." BBC News. January 9, 2005.</ref>//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4157947.stm UN upbeat on tsunami hunger aid]." BBC News. January 9, 2005.</ref>

www.wfp.org/english/?ModuleID=137&Key=1858 United Nations: World Food Programme: Report on the Tsunami Crisis].</ref>//www.wfp.org/english/?ModuleID=137&Key=1858 United Nations: World Food Programme: Report on the Tsunami Crisis].</ref> Modèle:See

news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4145259.stm|title=Tsunami aid: Who's giving what|date=01-27-2005|accessdate=2006-04-22}}</ref> According to USAID, the US has pledged additional funds in long-term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild their lives. On February 9, 2005, President Bush asked Congress to increase the U.S. commitment to a total of $950 million. Officials estimated that billions of dollars would be needed. Bush also asked his father, former President George H. W. Bush, and former President Bill Clinton to lead a U.S. effort to provide private aid to the tsunami victims.<ref>Staff Writer. "Clinton, Bush: Tsunami Aid Helping." The Early Show/CBS News. February 21, 2005.</ref>//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4145259.stm|title=Tsunami aid: Who's giving what|date=01-27-2005|accessdate=2006-04-22}}</ref> According to USAID, the US has pledged additional funds in long-term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild their lives. On February 9, 2005, President Bush asked Congress to increase the U.S. commitment to a total of $950 million. Officials estimated that billions of dollars would be needed. Bush also asked his father, former President George H. W. Bush, and former President Bill Clinton to lead a U.S. effort to provide private aid to the tsunami victims.<ref>Staff Writer. "Clinton, Bush: Tsunami Aid Helping." The Early Show/CBS News. February 21, 2005.</ref>

news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4361053.stm Tsunami aid shortfall over $4bn]." BBC News. March 18, 2005.</ref> Lots of charities were given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the UK the public donated roughly £330,000,000 sterling (nearly US$600,000,000). This considerably outweighed the donation by the government and came to an average of about £5.50 (US$10) donated by every citizen.//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4361053.stm Tsunami aid shortfall over $4bn]." BBC News. March 18, 2005.</ref> Lots of charities were given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the UK the public donated roughly £330,000,000 sterling (nearly US$600,000,000). This considerably outweighed the donation by the government and came to an average of about £5.50 (US$10) donated by every citizen.

In August 2006, fifteen local aid staff working on post-tsunami rebuilding were found executed in northeast Sri Lanka after heavy fighting, the main umbrella body for aid agencies in the country said. There had been reports and rumors that the local aid workers had been killed.

Economic impact

www.ukabc.org/tsunamis.htm Indian Ocean Tsunamis Devastate Fisherfolk]." UK Agricultural Biodiversity Coalition. December 26, 2004.</ref> In Sri Lanka artisanal fishery, where the use of fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export-oriented sector, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicate that 66% of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions have been destroyed by the wave surges, which will have adverse economic effects both at local and national levels.<ref>Staff Writer. "[Food Supply and Food Security Situation in Countries Affected by the Asia Tsunami]." Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. January 14, 2005.</ref>//www.ukabc.org/tsunamis.htm Indian Ocean Tsunamis Devastate Fisherfolk]." UK Agricultural Biodiversity Coalition. December 26, 2004.</ref> In Sri Lanka artisanal fishery, where the use of fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export-oriented sector, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicate that 66% of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions have been destroyed by the wave surges, which will have adverse economic effects both at local and national levels.<ref>Staff Writer. "[Food Supply and Food Security Situation in Countries Affected by the Asia Tsunami]." Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. January 14, 2005.</ref>

www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6840 Tsunami's salt water may leave islands uninhabitable]." New Scientist. January 5, 2005.</ref>//www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6840 Tsunami's salt water may leave islands uninhabitable]." New Scientist. January 5, 2005.</ref>

www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6791600 Tsunami redrew ship channels, ocean floor]." MSNBC/Associated Press. January 5, 2005.</ref>//www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6791600 Tsunami redrew ship channels, ocean floor]." MSNBC/Associated Press. January 5, 2005.</ref>

Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return, pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even resorts on the Pacific coast of Thailand, which were completely untouched, were hit by cancellations.

Environmental impact

www.oceansatlas.org/id/71687 Impact of Tsunamis on Ecosystems]." UN Atlas of the Oceans. Accessed: March 10, 2005.</ref>//www.oceansatlas.org/id/71687 Impact of Tsunamis on Ecosystems]." UN Atlas of the Oceans. Accessed: March 10, 2005.</ref>

According to specialists, the main effect is being caused by poisoning of the freshwater supplies and the soil by saltwater infiltration and deposit of a salt layer over arable land. It has been reported that in the Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are totally without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand and earth; and aquifers were invaded through porous rock. Salted-over soil becomes sterile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes the death of plants and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice, mango and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover. www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=414&ArticleID=4692&l=en Environmental Issues Emerging from Wreckage of Asian Tsunami]." United Nations Environment Programme.</ref> UNEP has decided to earmark a US$1,000,000 emergency fund and to establish a Task Force to respond to requests for technical assistance from countries affected by the tsunami.<ref> United Nations Environment Programme; Environment for Development

. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. </ref> In response to a request from the Maldivian Government, the Australian Government sent ecological experts to help restore marine environments and coral reefs — the lifeblood of Maldivian tourism. Much of the ecological expertise has been rendered from work with the Great Barrier Reef, in Australia's northeastern waters.//www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=414&ArticleID=4692&l=en Environmental Issues Emerging from Wreckage of Asian Tsunami]." United Nations Environment Programme.</ref> UNEP has decided to earmark a US$1,000,000 emergency fund and to establish a Task Force to respond to requests for technical assistance from countries affected by the tsunami.<ref> United Nations Environment Programme; Environment for Development

. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. </ref> In response to a request from the Maldivian Government, the Australian Government sent ecological experts to help restore marine environments and coral reefs — the lifeblood of Maldivian tourism. Much of the ecological expertise has been rendered from work with the Great Barrier Reef, in Australia's northeastern waters.

Other effects

Many health professionals and aid workers have reported widespread psychological trauma associated with the tsunami. Traditional beliefs in many of the affected regions state that a relative of the family must bury the body of the dead, and in many cases, no body remained to be buried.

www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57758-2005Jan7.html Divining a Reason for Devastation]." Washington Post. January 8, 2005.</ref> Women in Aceh required a special approach from foreign aid agencies, and continue to have unique needs.//www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57758-2005Jan7.html Divining a Reason for Devastation]." Washington Post. January 8, 2005.</ref> Women in Aceh required a special approach from foreign aid agencies, and continue to have unique needs.

news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/15_08_05_aceh.pdf Memorandum of Understanding] between Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement, August 15, 2005.</ref>//news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/15_08_05_aceh.pdf Memorandum of Understanding] between Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement, August 15, 2005.</ref>

www.apjc.org.au/program6.html |title=Asia Pacific Journalism Centre - Home Page |accessdate=2007-10-24 |format= |work=}}</ref>//www.apjc.org.au/program6.html |title=Asia Pacific Journalism Centre - Home Page |accessdate=2007-10-24 |format= |work=}}</ref>

www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18524883.800 Tsunami waves exposed remnants of lost city]." New Scientist. February 26, 2005.</ref><ref>Staff Writer. "India finds more 'tsunami gifts'." BBC News. February 27, 2005.</ref>//www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18524883.800 Tsunami waves exposed remnants of lost city]." New Scientist. February 26, 2005.</ref><ref>Staff Writer. "India finds more 'tsunami gifts'." BBC News. February 27, 2005.</ref>

See also

• Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
• Timeline of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
• Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System
• List of Indonesian earthquakes
• List of earthquakes
• 2005 Sumatra earthquake, a heavy aftershock of the Indian Ocean earthquake.
• Tsunami Evaluation Coalition
• May 2006 Java earthquake
• July 2006 Java earthquake

Notes and references

External links

Modèle:Sisterlinks

News collections

news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.channelnewsasia.com/tsunami/ Channel News Asia - One Year On, Memorial & Updates to the Asian Tsunami Disaster] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.hindu.com/thehindu/nic/0035/index.htm Tsunami tragedy] Report Index in The Hindu including the post Tsunami relief work news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2005/tsunami.oneyear/ CNN - Tsunami, One Year After] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.guardian.co.uk/tsunami/ Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Indian Ocean Tsunami Disaster] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.nytimes.com/pages/world/worldspecial4/ New York Times] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.smh.com.au/specials/tsunami/ Sydney Morning Herald - Waves of Devastation] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.thelocal.se/guides/tsunami/tsunami/ The Local - the Indian Ocean tsunami and its effect on Sweden] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.unitedsikhs.org/ghanaia/0121051.html] Effects and relief work on the Nicobar Islands.

Photos and video

news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//story.news.yahoo.com/news?p=news&g=events/asiatsunami/122604indonesiaquake&e=1&tmpl=sl&nosum=0&large=0&t=1104378256 Yahoo! Slideshows — Asian Tsunami Disaster] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.crisp.nus.edu.sg/tsunami/tsunami.html Satellite images of tsunami-affected areas (National University of Singapore)] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.tsunamis.com/tsunami-pictures.html Tsunamis.com - 2004 Asian Tsunami Pictures] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.chrisvalentines.com/projects/tsunami.html "and Gaia Shuddered" a music video essay] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.afterthetsunami.org/ "After the Tsunami"] Danish writer and photographer Thorsten Overgaard's documentary on the relief work after the December 26, 2004 tsunami.

Scientific and educational

news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.cgs.uiuc.edu/resources/webvideo/casadevall_sumatra.html The December 26, 2004, Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami: Field Perspectives on the Impacts to the Peoples, Cultures, Politics, and Economies of One of the World's Most Vibrant Regions], Speaker: Tom Casadevall, September 26, 2006. Sponsored by Center for Global Studiesand Center for Advanced Study, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//asc-india.org/lib/20041226-sumatra.htm Special Event Page, Amateur Seismic Centre, India] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.geo-world.org/tsunami/tsunami_interactive.html A series of films aimed at K12 age group explaining how earthquakes occur and how the tsunami was generated - Includes footage of school seismograph recording the earthquake] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.regentsearthscience.com/tsunami.htm A Comprehensive Inquiry Based Classroom Exercise for High School Students using the actual seismograms] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//rev.seis.sc.edu/earthquakes/2004/12/26/00/58/50 Seismograms for this earthquake via REV, the Rapid Earthquake Viewer] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.iris.iris.edu/sumatra/ Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake - IRIS Special Report] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=636278 View the epicentre in Google Earth]

• Iwan, W.D., editor, 2006, Summary report of the Great Sumatra Earthquakes and Indian Ocean tsunamis of 26 December 2004 and 28 March 2005: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, EERI Publication #2006-06, 11 chapters, 100 page summary, plus CD-ROM with complete text and supplementary photographs, EERI Report 2006-06. [www.eeri.org] ISBN 1-932884-19-X

Industry

news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.envirtech.org/envirtech_tsunameter.htm Envirtech Tsunami Warning System, based on real time seafloor observatories measuring seismic waves and sea levels] news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2004/asia_quake_disaster/default.stm BBC News - In-Depth Report: Tsunami Disaster]//www.ina.in/itws/ Integrated Tsunami Watcher Service]Modèle:Link FA

ar:زلزال المحيط الهندي 2004 zh-min-nan:2004 nî Ìn-tō͘-iûⁿ tōa tē-tāng be-x-old:Землятрус ля Суматры 2004 bg:Земетресение в Индийския океан (26 декември 2004) ca:Tsunami de l'Oceà Índic cs:Zemětřesení v Indickém oceánu v roce 2004 cy:Tsunami Cefnfor India 2004 da:Jordskælvet i Det Indiske Ocean 2004 de:Seebeben im Indischen Ozean 2004 et:2004. aasta India ookeani maavärin el:Σεισμός του Ινδικού Ωκεανού (2004) es:Terremoto del Océano Índico de 2004 eo:Hinda-Oceana Tertremo en 2004 eu:2004ko Indiar Ozeanoko lurrikara fa:زمین‌لرزه ۲۰۰۴ اقیانوس هند fr:Tremblement de terre du 26 décembre 2004 gl:Terremoto do Océano Índico 2004 ko:2004년 인도양 지진 해일 사태 hi:हिंद महासागर सूनामी चेतावनी प्रणाली तंत्र id:Gempa bumi Samudra Hindia 2004 it:Maremoto dell'Oceano Indiano he:רעידת האדמה באוקיינוס ההודי (2004) kn:೨೦೦೪ ಹಿಂದೂ ಮಹಾಸಾಗರದ ಭೂಕಂಪ lv:2004. gada Indijas okeāna zemestrīce ms:Gempa bumi 26 Disember 2004 nl:Aardbeving Indische Oceaan 2004 ja:スマトラ島沖地震 (2004年) no:Jordskjelvet i Indiahavet 2004 nn:Jordskjelvet i Indiahavet 2004 pl:Trzęsienie ziemi na Oceanie Indyjskim, 2004 pt:Terramoto do Índico de 2004 ro:Cutremurul din Oceanul Indian din 2004 ru:Землетрясение в Индийском океане в 2004 году sl:Potres v Indijskem oceanu (2004) sr:Цунами у Индијском океану 2004. fi:Vuoden 2004 Intian valtameren maanjäristys sv:Jordbävningen i Indiska oceanen 2004 th:แผ่นดินไหวในมหาสมุทรอินเดีย พ.ศ. 2547 vi:Thảm họa Sóng thần Ấn Độ Dương uk:Землетрус в Індонезії 2004 zh:2004年印度洋大地震