Atheism

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Modèle:Semiprotected Modèle:Featured article Modèle:Redirect Modèle:Atheism2 www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109479/atheism |accessdate=2007-04-28}} "...a more adequate characterization of atheism consists in the more complex claim that to be an atheist is to be someone who rejects belief in God for [reasons that depend] on how God is being conceived."</ref> When defined more broadly, atheism is the absence of belief in deities,<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> alternatively called nontheism.<ref>religioustolerance.org's short article on Definitions of the term "Atheism" suggests that there is no consensus on the definition of the term. Simon Blackburn summarizes the situation in The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy: "Atheism. Either the lack of belief in a god, or the belief that there is none." Most dictionaries (see the OneLook query for "atheism") first list one of the more narrow definitions.</ref> Although atheism is often equated with irreligion, some religious philosophies, such as secular theology and some varieties of Buddhism such as Theravada, either do not include belief in a personal god as a tenet of the religion, or actively teach nontheism.//www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109479/atheism |accessdate=2007-04-28}} "...a more adequate characterization of atheism consists in the more complex claim that to be an atheist is to be someone who rejects belief in God for [reasons that depend] on how God is being conceived."</ref> When defined more broadly, atheism is the absence of belief in deities,<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> alternatively called nontheism.<ref>religioustolerance.org's short article on Definitions of the term "Atheism" suggests that there is no consensus on the definition of the term. Simon Blackburn summarizes the situation in The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy: "Atheism. Either the lack of belief in a god, or the belief that there is none." Most dictionaries (see the OneLook query for "atheism") first list one of the more narrow definitions.</ref> Although atheism is often equated with irreligion, some religious philosophies, such as secular theology and some varieties of Buddhism such as Theravada, either do not include belief in a personal god as a tenet of the religion, or actively teach nontheism.

Many self-described atheists are skeptical of all supernatural beings and cite a lack of empirical evidence for the existence of deities. Others argue for atheism on philosophical, social or historical grounds. Although many self-described atheists tend toward secular philosophies such as humanism<ref>Honderich, Ted (Ed.) (1995). "Humanism". The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p 376. ISBN 0198661320.</ref> and naturalism,<ref>Fales, Evan. "Naturalism and Physicalism", in Modèle:Harvnb.</ref> there is no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref>

The term atheism originated as a pejorative epithet applied to any person or belief in conflict with established religion.<ref name=drachmann>Modèle:Cite book</ref> With the spread of freethought, scientific skepticism, and criticism of religion, the term began to gather a more specific meaning and has been increasingly used as a self-description by atheists.

Etymology

www.ccel.org/r/robertson_at/wordpictures/htm/EPH2.RWP.html |quote=Old Greek word, not in LXX, only here in N.T. Atheists in the original sense of being without God and also in the sense of hostility to God from failure to worship him. See Paul's words in Ro 1:18–32.}}</ref>]]//www.ccel.org/r/robertson_at/wordpictures/htm/EPH2.RWP.html |quote=Old Greek word, not in LXX, only here in N.T. Atheists in the original sense of being without God and also in the sense of hostility to God from failure to worship him. See Paul's words in Ro 1:18–32.}}</ref>]]

In early Ancient Greek, the adjective Modèle:Transl (ἄθεος, from the privative ἀ- + θεός "god") meant "godless". The word began to indicate more-intentional, active godlessness in the 5th century BCE, acquiring definitions of "severing relations with the gods" or "denying the gods, ungodly" instead of the earlier meaning of ἀσεβής (Modèle:Transl) or "impious". Modern translations of classical texts sometimes render Modèle:Transl as "atheistic". As an abstract noun, there was also ἀθεότης (Modèle:Transl), "atheism". Cicero transliterated the Greek word into the Latin atheos. The term found frequent use in the debate between early Christians and pagans, with each side attributing it, in the pejorative sense, to the other.<ref name=drachmann/>

dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50014052 atheist]}}</ref> predates atheism in English, being first attested in about 1571.<ref>Rendered as Atheistes: Modèle:Cite book Translated from French.</ref> Atheist as a label of practical godlessness was used at least as early as 1577.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Related words emerged later: deist in 1621,<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> theist in 1662;<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> theism in 1678;<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> and deism in 1682.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Deism and theism changed meanings slightly around 1700, due to the influence of atheism; deism was originally used as a synonym for today's theism, but came to denote a separate philosophical doctrine.<ref>The Oxford English Dictionary also records an earlier, irregular formation, atheonism, dated from about 1534. The later and now obsolete words athean and atheal are dated to 1611 and 1612 respectively. Modèle:Cite book</ref>//dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50014052 atheist]}}</ref> predates atheism in English, being first attested in about 1571.<ref>Rendered as Atheistes: Modèle:Cite book Translated from French.</ref> Atheist as a label of practical godlessness was used at least as early as 1577.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Related words emerged later: deist in 1621,<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> theist in 1662;<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> theism in 1678;<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> and deism in 1682.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Deism and theism changed meanings slightly around 1700, due to the influence of atheism; deism was originally used as a synonym for today's theism, but came to denote a separate philosophical doctrine.<ref>The Oxford English Dictionary also records an earlier, irregular formation, atheonism, dated from about 1534. The later and now obsolete words athean and atheal are dated to 1611 and 1612 respectively. Modèle:Cite book</ref>

books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521842700 The Cambridge Companion to Atheism]. Cambridge University Press. 2006. ISBN 0521842700.</ref>. Most recently, there has been a push in certain philosophical circles to redefine atheism negatively, as the "absence of belief in deities", rather than as a belief in its own right; this definition has become popular in atheist communities, though its mainstream usage has been limited.<ref name="martin"/><ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

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. Retrieved on 2007-06-07. </ref> contesting what supernatural entities it applies to, whether it is an assertion in its own right or merely the absence of one, and whether it requires a conscious, explicit rejection. A variety of categories have been proposed to try to distinguish the different forms of atheism, most of which treat atheism as "absence of belief in deities" in order to explore the varieties of this nontheism.//www.1911encyclopedia.org/Atheism | title = "Atheism" | work = Encyclopedia Britannica | accessdate = 2007-06-07}}</ref> contesting what supernatural entities it applies to, whether it is an assertion in its own right or merely the absence of one, and whether it requires a conscious, explicit rejection. A variety of categories have been proposed to try to distinguish the different forms of atheism, most of which treat atheism as "absence of belief in deities" in order to explore the varieties of this nontheism.

Range

books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521842700 The Cambridge Companion to Atheism]. Cambridge University//books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521842700 The Cambridge Companion to Atheism]. Cambridge University Press. 2006. ISBN 0521842700.</ref>

www.britannica.com/eb/article-38265/atheism | accessdate = 2006-10-27 | journal = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition = 15th Edition | volume = 1 | pages = 666 | year = 1992 | id = 0852294735}}</ref>//www.britannica.com/eb/article-38265/atheism | accessdate = 2006-10-27 | journal = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition = 15th Edition | volume = 1 | pages = 666 | year = 1992 | id = 0852294735}}</ref>

Implicit vs. explicit

Main article: Implicit and explicit atheism

www.gutenberg.org/etext/7319 | accessdate = 2006-10-27 | year = 1772}}</ref> Similarly, George H. Smith (1979) suggested that: "The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child with the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist."<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref> Smith coined the term implicit atheism to refer to "the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it" and explicit atheism to refer to the more common definition of conscious disbelief.//www.gutenberg.org/etext/7319 | accessdate = 2006-10-27 | year = 1772}}</ref> Similarly, George H. Smith (1979) suggested that: "The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child with the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist."<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref> Smith coined the term implicit atheism to refer to "the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it" and explicit atheism to refer to the more common definition of conscious disbelief.

www.infidels.org/library/modern/jeff_lowder/society.html | accessdate=2007-01-10 }}</ref> also, atheist organizations of military personnel have been created in response.<ref>Two such organizations are Atheists in Foxholes and the Military Association of Atheists & Freethinkers.</ref>//www.infidels.org/library/modern/jeff_lowder/society.html | accessdate=2007-01-10 }}</ref> also, atheist organizations of military personnel have been created in response.<ref>Two such organizations are Atheists in Foxholes and the Military Association of Atheists & Freethinkers.</ref>

Strong vs. weak

Main article: Weak and strong atheism

atheism.about.com/od/atheismquestions/a/strong_weak.htm | accessdate = 2006-10-21 | year = 2006 | publisher = about.com}}</ref> The terms weak and strong are relatively recent; however, the equivalent terms negative and positive atheism have been used in the philosophical literature<ref name="presumption"/> and (in a slightly different sense) in Catholic apologetics.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620//www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm</ref> Under this demarcation of atheism, most agnostics qualify as weak atheists.//atheism.about.com/od/atheismquestions/a/strong_weak.htm | accessdate = 2006-10-21 | year = 2006 | publisher = about.com}}</ref> The terms weak and strong are relatively recent; however, the equivalent terms negative and positive atheism have been used in the philosophical literature<ref name="presumption"/> and (in a slightly different sense) in Catholic apologetics.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620//www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm</ref> Under this demarcation of atheism, most agnostics qualify as weak atheists.

www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-9329.2006.00339.x |journal=Ratio |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=442 |quote=Those who fail to believe in God because they think that the truth-value of ‘God exists’ is uncertain may be called agnostic negative atheists, or agnostics for short.}}</ref> most agnostics see their view as distinct from atheism, which they may consider no more justified than theism, or requires an equal conviction.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> The supposed unattainability of knowledge for or against the existence of gods is sometimes seen as indication that atheism requires a leap of faith.<ref> Freking search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620//www.columbiatribune.com/2005/Jan/20050123Comm008.asp , Ken

  . 
 "
   Atheists take bigger leap of faith than ‘believers’
   
 " , Columbia Daily Tribune , 2005-01-23
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-05-30
 . </ref> Common atheist responses to this argument include that unproven religious propositions deserve as much disbelief as all other unproven propositions,<ref>Modèle:Harvnb. "Who seriously claims we should say 'I neither believe nor disbelieve that the Pope is a robot', or 'As to whether or not eating this piece of chocolate will turn me into an elephant I am completely agnostic'. In the absence of any good reasons to believe these outlandish claims, we rightly disbelieve them, we don't just suspend judgement."</ref> and that the unprovability of a god's existence does not imply equal probability of either possibility.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb. "A lack of proof is no grounds for the suspension of belief. This is because when we have a lack of absolute proof we can still have overwhelming evidence or one explanation which is far superior to the alternatives."</ref> Scottish philosopher J. J. C. Smart even argues that "sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself, even passionately, as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalised philosophical scepticism which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever, except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic."<ref name="stanford">Modèle:Cite web search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620//plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/</ref> Consequently, some popular atheist authors such as Richard Dawkins prefer distinguishing theist, agnostic and atheist positions by the probability assigned to the statement "God exists".<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>//www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-9329.2006.00339.x |journal=Ratio |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=442 |quote=Those who fail to believe in God because they think that the truth-value of ‘God exists’ is uncertain may be called agnostic negative atheists, or agnostics for short.}}</ref> most agnostics see their view as distinct from atheism, which they may consider no more justified than theism, or requires an equal conviction.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> The supposed unattainability of knowledge for or against the existence of gods is sometimes seen as indication that atheism requires a leap of faith.<ref>   Freking search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620//www.columbiatribune.com/2005/Jan/20050123Comm008.asp , Ken 
       
   
  . 
 "
   Atheists take bigger leap of faith than ‘believers’
   
 " , Columbia Daily Tribune , 2005-01-23
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-05-30
 . </ref> Common atheist responses to this argument include that unproven religious propositions deserve as much disbelief as all other unproven propositions,<ref>Modèle:Harvnb. "Who seriously claims we should say 'I neither believe nor disbelieve that the Pope is a robot', or 'As to whether or not eating this piece of chocolate will turn me into an elephant I am completely agnostic'. In the absence of any good reasons to believe these outlandish claims, we rightly disbelieve them, we don't just suspend judgement."</ref> and that the unprovability of a god's existence does not imply equal probability of either possibility.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb. "A lack of proof is no grounds for the suspension of belief. This is because when we have a lack of absolute proof we can still have overwhelming evidence or one explanation which is far superior to the alternatives."</ref> Scottish philosopher J. J. C. Smart even argues that "sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself, even passionately, as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalised philosophical scepticism which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever, except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic."<ref name="stanford">Modèle:Cite web search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620//plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/</ref> Consequently, some popular atheist authors such as Richard Dawkins prefer distinguishing theist, agnostic and atheist positions by the probability assigned to the statement "God exists".<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>

Rationale

www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk/french/emblem.php?id=FANa100 Summa impietas]" (1552), Picta poesis, by Barthélemy Aneau. Glasgow University Emblem Website. Retrieved on 2007-03-26.</ref>

Emblem illustrating practical atheism and its historical association with immorality, titled "Supreme Impiety: Atheist and Charlatan", from Picta poesis, by Barthélemy Aneau, 1552.]]//www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk/french/emblem.php?id=FANa100 Summa impietas]" (1552), Picta poesis, by Barthélemy Aneau. Glasgow University Emblem Website. Retrieved on 2007-03-26.</ref>

Emblem illustrating practical atheism and its historical association with immorality, titled "Supreme Impiety: Atheist and Charlatan", from Picta poesis, by Barthélemy Aneau, 1552.]]

The broadest demarcation with respect to atheistic rationale is between practical and theoretical atheism. The different forms of theoretical atheism each derive from a particular rationale or philosophical argument. In contrast, practical atheism requires no specific argument, and can include indifference to and ignorance of the idea of gods.

Practical atheism

www.freeinquiry.com/naturalism.html Naturalism is an Essential Part of Science and Critical Inquiry]". Conference on Naturalism, Theism and the Scientific Enterprise. Department of Philosophy, The University of Texas. February 1997. Revised May 2007. Retrieved on 2007-04-09.</ref>//www.freeinquiry.com/naturalism.html Naturalism is an Essential Part of Science and Critical Inquiry]". Conference on Naturalism, Theism and the Scientific Enterprise. Department of Philosophy, The University of Texas. February 1997. Revised May 2007. Retrieved on 2007-04-09.</ref>

Practical atheism can take various forms:

• Absence of religious motivation—belief in gods does not motivate moral action, religious action, or any other form of action;
• Active exclusion of the problem of gods and religion from intellectual pursuit and practical action;
• Indifference—the absence of any interest in the problems of gods and religion; or
• Ignorance—lacking any idea of gods.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref>

Historically, practical atheism has been associated with moral failure, willful ignorance and impiety. Those considered practical atheists were said to behave as though God, ethics and social responsibility did not exist; they abandoned duty and embraced hedonism. According to the French Catholic philosopher Étienne Borne, "Practical atheism is not the denial of the existence of God, but complete godlessness of action; it is a moral evil, implying not the denial of the absolute validity of the moral law but simply rebellion against that law."<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>

Theoretical atheism

Modèle:Further

Theoretical, or contemplative, atheism explicitly posits arguments against the existence of gods, responding to common theistic arguments such as the argument from design or Pascal's Wager. The theoretical reasons for rejecting gods assume various psychological, sociological, metaphysical, and epistemological forms.

Epistemological arguments

Modèle:Further Epistemological atheism argues that people cannot know God or determine the existence of God. The foundation of epistemological atheism is agnosticism, which takes a variety of forms. In the philosophy of immanence, divinity is inseparable from the world itself, including a person's mind, and each person's consciousness is locked in the subject. According to this form of agnosticism, this limitation in perspective prevents any objective inference from belief in a god to assertions of its existence. The rationalistic agnosticism of Kant and the Enlightenment only accepts knowledge deduced with human rationality; this form of atheism holds that gods are not discernible as a matter of principle, and therefore cannot be known to exist. Skepticism, based on the ideas of Hume, asserts that certainty about anything is impossible, so one can never know the existence of God. The allocation of agnosticism to atheism is disputed; it can also be regarded as an independent, basic world-view.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref>

www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/definition.html Atheism, Agnosticism, Noncognitivism]". Internet Infidels, Secular Web Library. Retrieved on 2007-04-07.</ref><ref>Ayer, A. J. (1946). Language, Truth and Logic. Dover. pp. 115–116. In a footnote, Ayer attributes this view to "Professor H. H. Price".</ref>//www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/definition.html Atheism, Agnosticism, Noncognitivism]". Internet Infidels, Secular Web Library. Retrieved on 2007-04-07.</ref><ref>Ayer, A. J. (1946). Language, Truth and Logic. Dover. pp. 115–116. In a footnote, Ayer attributes this view to "Professor H. H. Price".</ref>

Metaphysical arguments

Modèle:Further Metaphysical atheism is based on metaphysical monism—the view that reality is homogeneous and indivisible. Absolute metaphysical atheists subscribe to some form of physicalism, hence they explicitly deny the existence of non-physical beings. Relative metaphysical atheists maintain an implicit denial of a particular concept of God based on the incongruity between their individual philosophies and attributes commonly applied to God, such as transcendence, a personal aspect, or unity. Examples of relative metaphysical atheism include pantheism, panentheism, and deism.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref>

Psychological, sociological and economical arguments

Modèle:Further dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html God and the State]. New York: Mother Earth Publishing Association. Retrieved on 2007-04-12.</ref>//dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html God and the State]. New York: Mother Earth Publishing Association. Retrieved on 2007-04-12.</ref>

Logical and evidential arguments

Modèle:Further Logical atheism holds that the various conceptions of gods, such as the personal god of Christianity, are ascribed logically inconsistent qualities. Such atheists present deductive arguments against the existence of God, which assert the incompatibility between certain traits, such as perfection, creator-status, immutability, omniscience, omnipresence, omnibenevolence, transcendence, personhood (a personal being), nonphysicality, justice and mercy.<ref>Various authors. "Logical Arguments for Atheism". Internet Infidels, The Secular Web Library. Retrieved on 2007-04-09.</ref>

www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/aeanb.html The Arguments From Evil and Nonbelief]". Internet Infidels, Secular Web Library. Retrieved 2007-04-18.</ref> A similar argument is attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism.<ref>V.A. Gunasekara, The Buddhist Attitude to God. In the Bhuridatta Jataka, "The Buddha argues that the three most commonly given attributes of God, viz. omnipotence, omniscience and benevolence towards humanity cannot all be mutually compatible with the existential fact of dukkha."</ref>//www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/aeanb.html The Arguments From Evil and Nonbelief]". Internet Infidels, Secular Web Library. Retrieved 2007-04-18.</ref> A similar argument is attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism.<ref>V.A. Gunasekara, The Buddhist Attitude to God. In the Bhuridatta Jataka, "The Buddha argues that the three most commonly given attributes of God, viz. omnipotence, omniscience and benevolence towards humanity cannot all be mutually compatible with the existential fact of dukkha."</ref>

Anthropocentric arguments

Modèle:Further Axiological, or constructive, atheism rejects the existence of gods in favor of a "higher absolute", such as humanity. This form of atheism favors humanity as the absolute source of ethics and values, and permits individuals to resolve moral problems without resorting to God. Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, and Sartre all used this argument to convey messages of liberation, full-development, and unfettered happiness.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref>

www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=12346 |title=Common Misconceptions About Atheists and Atheism |accessdate=2006-10-21 |last=Gleeson |first=David |year=2006 |publisher=American Chronicle}}</ref> or renders life meaningless and miserable.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb. "Perhaps the most common criticism of atheism is the claim that it leads inevitably to moral bankruptcy."</ref> Blaise Pascal argued this view in 1669.<ref>Pascal, Blaise (1669). Pensées, II: "The Misery of Man Without God".</ref>//www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=12346 |title=Common Misconceptions About Atheists and Atheism |accessdate=2006-10-21 |last=Gleeson |first=David |year=2006 |publisher=American Chronicle}}</ref> or renders life meaningless and miserable.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb. "Perhaps the most common criticism of atheism is the claim that it leads inevitably to moral bankruptcy."</ref> Blaise Pascal argued this view in 1669.<ref>Pascal, Blaise (1669). Pensées, II: "The Misery of Man Without God".</ref>

History

Main article: History of atheism

Although the term atheism originated in 16th-century France, ideas that would be recognized today as atheistic are documented from classical antiquity and the Vedic period.

Early Indic religion

Main article: Atheism in Hinduism

Atheistic schools are found in Hinduism, which is otherwise a very theistic religion. The thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka School that originated in India around 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of philosophy in India. This branch of Indian philosophy is classified as a heterodox system and is not considered part of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism, but it is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.<ref>Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. (Princeton University Press: 1957, Twelfth Princeton Paperback printing 1989) pp. 227–249. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.</ref> Chatterjee and Datta explain that our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and that it is not a living tradition:

"Though materialism in some form or other has always been present in India, and occasional references are found in the Vedas, the Buddhistic literature, the Epics, as well as in the later philosophical works we do not find any systematic work on materialism, nor any organised school of followers as the other philosophical schools possess. But almost every work of the other schools states, for reputation, the materialistic views. Our knowledge of Indian materialism is chiefly based on these."<ref>Satischandra Chatterjee and Dhirendramohan Datta. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Eighth Reprint Edition. (University of Calcutta: 1984). p. 55.</ref>

links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-8221(196607%2F10)16%3A3%2F4%3C189%3AANIOIA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S}}</ref>//links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-8221(196607%2F10)16%3A3%2F4%3C189%3AANIOIA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S}}</ref>

Classical antiquity

books.google.com/books?vid=0blEqYn0npw5h4r_qPHc_fk&id=rLASAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Plato's Theology]. Cornell University Press. p 25.</ref> and strongly criticized religion and mysticism. Critias viewed religion as a human invention used to frighten people into following moral order.<ref>"religion, study of". (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved on April 2, 2007.</ref> Atomists such as Democritus attempted to explain the world in a purely materialistic way, without reference to the spiritual or mystical. Other pre-Socratic philosophers who probably had atheistic views included Prodicus, Protagoras, and Theodorus.//books.google.com/books?vid=0blEqYn0npw5h4r_qPHc_fk&id=rLASAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Plato's Theology]. Cornell University Press. p 25.</ref> and strongly criticized religion and mysticism. Critias viewed religion as a human invention used to frighten people into following moral order.<ref>"religion, study of". (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved on April 2, 2007.</ref> Atomists such as Democritus attempted to explain the world in a purely materialistic way, without reference to the spiritual or mystical. Other pre-Socratic philosophers who probably had atheistic views included Prodicus, Protagoras, and Theodorus.

www.bartleby.com/65/at/atheism.html |title=Atheism |accessdate=2007-04-12 |year=2005 |work=The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Although he disputed the accusation that he was a "complete atheist",<ref>Modèle:Cite book In particular, he argues that the claim he is a complete atheist contradicts the other part of the indictment, that he introduced "new divinities".</ref> he was ultimately sentenced to death.//www.bartleby.com/65/at/atheism.html |title=Atheism |accessdate=2007-04-12 |year=2005 |work=The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Although he disputed the accusation that he was a "complete atheist",<ref>Modèle:Cite book In particular, he argues that the claim he is a complete atheist contradicts the other part of the indictment, that he introduced "new divinities".</ref> he was ultimately sentenced to death.

www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/ | accessdate = 2007-04-12 | publisher = bbc.co.uk}}</ref>//www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/ | accessdate = 2007-04-12 | publisher = bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

The Roman poet Lucretius agreed that, if there were gods, they were unconcerned with humanity and unable to affect the natural world. For this reason, he believed humanity should have no fear of the supernatural. In De rerum natura ("On the nature of things"), he expounds his Epicurean views of the cosmos, atoms, the soul, mortality, and religion.<ref>Modèle:Gutenberg Book I, "Substance is Eternal". Translated by W.E. Leonard. 1997. Retrieved on 2007-04-12.</ref>

www.positiveatheism.org/india/s1990c25.htm The History of Freethought and Atheism]". An Anthology of Atheism and Rationalism. New York: Prometheus. Retrieved on 2007-04-03.</ref>//www.positiveatheism.org/india/s1990c25.htm The History of Freethought and Atheism]". An Anthology of Atheism and Rationalism. New York: Prometheus. Retrieved on 2007-04-03.</ref>

books.google.com/books?id=DmL8CljbqDwC Inquisition from Its Establishment to the Great Schism: An Introductory Study]. ISBN 0766172902.</ref>//books.google.com/books?id=DmL8CljbqDwC Inquisition from Its Establishment to the Great Schism: An Introductory Study]. ISBN 0766172902.</ref>

Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance

The espousal of atheistic views was rare in Europe during the Early Middle Ages and Middle Ages (see Medieval Inquisition); metaphysics, religion and theology were the dominant interests.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb</ref> There were, however, movements within this period that forwarded heterodox conceptions of the Christian God, including differing views of the nature, transcendence, and knowability of God. Individuals and groups such as Johannes Scotus Eriugena, David of Dinant, Amalric of Bena, and the Brethren of the Free Spirit maintained Christian viewpoints with pantheistic tendencies. Nicholas of Cusa held to a form of fideism he called docta ignorantia ("learned ignorance"), asserting that God is beyond human categorization, and our knowledge of God is limited to conjecture. William of Ockham inspired anti-metaphysical tendencies with his nominalistic limitation of human knowledge to singular objects, and asserted that the divine essence could not be intuitively or rationally apprehended by human intellect. Followers of Ockham, such as John of Mirecourt and Nicholas of Autrecourt furthered this view. The resulting division between faith and reason influenced later theologians such as John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, and Martin Luther.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref>

The Renaissance did much to expand the scope of freethought and skeptical inquiry. Individuals such as Leonardo da Vinci sought experimentation as a means of explanation, and opposed arguments from religious authority. Other critics of religion and the Church during this time included Niccolò Machiavelli, Bonaventure des Périers, and François Rabelais.<ref name="gordonstein"/>

Early Modern Period

The Renaissance and Reformation eras witnessed a resurgence in religious fervor, as evidenced by the proliferation of new religious orders, confraternities, and popular devotions in the Catholic world, and the appearance of increasingly austere Protestant sects such as the Calvinists. This era of interconfessional rivalry permitted an even wider scope of theological and philosophical speculation, much of which would later be used to advance a religiously skeptical world-view.

www.wpunj.edu/newpol/issue40/Onfray40.htm</ref> He was followed by other openly atheistic thinkers, such as Baron d'Holbach, who appeared in the late 18th century, when expressing disbelief in God became a less dangerous position.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> David Hume was the most systematic exponent of Enlightenment thought, developing a skeptical epistemology grounded in empiricism, undermining the metaphysical basis of natural theology.//www.wpunj.edu/newpol/issue40/Onfray40.htm</ref> He was followed by other openly atheistic thinkers, such as Baron d'Holbach, who appeared in the late 18th century, when expressing disbelief in God became a less dangerous position.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> David Hume was the most systematic exponent of Enlightenment thought, developing a skeptical epistemology grounded in empiricism, undermining the metaphysical basis of natural theology.

The French Revolution took atheism outside the salons and into the public sphere. Attempts to enforce the Civil Constitution of the Clergy led to anti-clerical violence and the expulsion of many clergy from France. The chaotic political events in revolutionary Paris eventually enabled the more radical Jacobins to seize power in 1793, ushering in the Reign of Terror. At its climax, the more militant atheists attempted to forcibly de-Christianize France, replacing religion with a Cult of Reason. These persecutions ended with the Thermidorian Reaction, but some of the secularizing measures of this period remained a permanent legacy of French politics.

The Napoleonic era institutionalized the secularization of French society, and exported the revolution to northern Italy, in the hopes of creating pliable republics. In the nineteenth century, many atheists and other anti-religious thinkers devoted their efforts to political and social revolution, facilitating the upheavals of 1848, the Risorgimento in Italy, and the growth of an international socialist movement.

books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=BKz2FcDrFy0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=nietzsche+schopenhauer+marx+feuerbach&ots=Uj5_B0kDbS&sig=1lXbokGVRbwxqAIbmcOwL033N88 |title=Subjectivity and Irreligion: Atheism and Agnosticism in Kant, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |accessdate=2007-04-12 |last=Ray |first=Matthew Alun |date=2003}}</ref>//books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=BKz2FcDrFy0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=nietzsche+schopenhauer+marx+feuerbach&ots=Uj5_B0kDbS&sig=1lXbokGVRbwxqAIbmcOwL033N88 |title=Subjectivity and Irreligion: Atheism and Agnosticism in Kant, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |accessdate=2007-04-12 |last=Ray |first=Matthew Alun |date=2003}}</ref>

The 20th Century

Atheism in the 20th century, particularly in the form of practical atheism, advanced in many societies. Atheistic thought found recognition in a wide variety of other, broader philosophies, such as existentialism, Objectivism, secular humanism, nihilism, logical positivism, Marxism, feminism,<ref>Overall, Christine. "Feminism and Atheism", in Modèle:Harvnb.</ref> and the general scientific and rationalist movement.

Logical positivism and scientism paved the way for neopositivism, analytical philosophy, structuralism, and naturalism. Neopositivism and analytical philosophy discarded classical rationalism and metaphysics in favor of strict empiricism and epistemological nominalism. Proponents such as Bertrand Russell emphatically rejected belief in God. In his early work, Ludwig Wittgenstein attempted to separate metaphysical and supernatural language from rational discourse. A. J. Ayer asserted the unverifiability and meaninglessness of religious statements, citing his adherence to the empirical sciences. Relatedly the applied structuralism of Lévi-Strauss sourced religious language to the human subconscious in denying its transcendental meaning. J. N. Findlay and J. J. C. Smart argued that the existence of God is not logically necessary. Naturalists and materialistic monists such as John Dewey considered the natural world to be the basis of everything, denying the existence of God or immortality.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref><ref name="stanford"/>

The 20th century also saw the political advancement of atheism, spurred on by interpretation of the works of Marx and Engels. After the 1917 revolution in Russia, increased religious freedom for minority religions lasted for a few years, before the policies of Stalinism turned towards repression of religion. The Soviet Union and other communist states promoted state atheism and opposed religion, often by violent means.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> www.iheu.org/node/548 Atheism in South India]". International Humanist and Ethical Union, International Humanist News. Retrieved on 2007-05-30.</ref>//www.iheu.org/node/548 Atheism in South India]". International Humanist and Ethical Union, International Humanist News. Retrieved on 2007-05-30.</ref>

www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19660408,00.html TIME Magazine cover] online. 8 Apr 1966. Retrieved 2007-04-17.</ref> in response to the Death of God theological movement, citing the estimation that nearly one in two people in the world lived under an anti-religious power and millions more in Africa, Asia, and South America seemed to lack knowledge of the Christian God.<ref>"Toward a Hidden God". TIME Magazine online. 8 Apr 1966. Retrieved 2007-04-17.</ref> The following year, the Albanian government under Enver Hoxha announced the closure of all religious institutions in the country, declaring Albania the world's first atheist state.<ref>Majeska, George P. (1976). "Religion and Atheism in the U.S.S.R. and Eastern Europe, Review". The Slavic and East European Journal. 20(2). pp. 204–206.</ref> These regimes enhanced the negative associations of atheism, especially where anti-communist sentiment was strong in the United States, despite the fact that some prominent atheists were anti-communist.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the number of actively anti-religious regimes has reduced considerably. In 2006, Timothy Shah of the Pew Forum noted "a worldwide trend across all major religious groups, in which God-based and faith-based movements in general are experiencing increasing confidence and influence vis-à-vis secular movements and ideologies."<ref>"Timothy Samuel Shah Explains 'Why God is Winning'". 2006-07-18. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. Retrieved 2007-04-18.</ref> Gregory S. Paul and Phil Zuckerman consider this a myth and suggest that the actual situation is more complex and nuanced.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>//www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19660408,00.html TIME Magazine cover] online. 8 Apr 1966. Retrieved 2007-04-17.</ref> in response to the Death of God theological movement, citing the estimation that nearly one in two people in the world lived under an anti-religious power and millions more in Africa, Asia, and South America seemed to lack knowledge of the Christian God.<ref>"Toward a Hidden God". TIME Magazine online. 8 Apr 1966. Retrieved 2007-04-17.</ref> The following year, the Albanian government under Enver Hoxha announced the closure of all religious institutions in the country, declaring Albania the world's first atheist state.<ref>Majeska, George P. (1976). "Religion and Atheism in the U.S.S.R. and Eastern Europe, Review". The Slavic and East European Journal. 20(2). pp. 204–206.</ref> These regimes enhanced the negative associations of atheism, especially where anti-communist sentiment was strong in the United States, despite the fact that some prominent atheists were anti-communist.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the number of actively anti-religious regimes has reduced considerably. In 2006, Timothy Shah of the Pew Forum noted "a worldwide trend across all major religious groups, in which God-based and faith-based movements in general are experiencing increasing confidence and influence vis-à-vis secular movements and ideologies."<ref>"Timothy Samuel Shah Explains 'Why God is Winning'". 2006-07-18. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. Retrieved 2007-04-18.</ref> Gregory S. Paul and Phil Zuckerman consider this a myth and suggest that the actual situation is more complex and nuanced.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of atheism

It is difficult to quantify the number of atheists in the world. Respondents to religious-belief polls may define "atheism" differently or draw different distinctions between atheism, non-religious beliefs, and non-theistic religious and spiritual beliefs. In addition, people in some regions of the world refrain from reporting themselves as atheists to avoid social stigma, discrimination, and persecution. A 2005 survey published in Encyclopædia Britannica found that the non-religious make up about 11.9% of the world's population, and atheists about 2.3%. This figure does not include those who follow atheistic religions, such as some Buddhists.<ref name="Britannica demographics">{{cite web search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620//search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620 |title=Worldwide Adherents of All Religions by Six Continental Areas, Mid-2005 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2005 |accessdate=2007-04-15}}

• 2.3% Atheists: Persons professing atheism, skepticism, disbelief, or irreligion, including the militantly antireligious (opposed to all religion).
• 11.9% Nonreligious: Persons professing no religion, nonbelievers, agnostics, freethinkers, uninterested, or dereligionized secularists indifferent to all religion but not militantly so.

</ref> A November–December 2006 poll published in the Financial Times gives rates for the United States and five European countries. It found that Americans are more likely than Europeans to believe in any form of god or supreme being (73%). Of the European adults surveyed, Italians are the most likely to express this belief (62%) and the French the least likely (27%). In France, 32% declared themselves atheists, and an additional 32% declared themselves agnostic.<ref>{{cite web search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620//www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=1131 |title=Religious Views and Beliefs Vary Greatly by Country, According to the Latest Financial Times/Harris Poll |publisher=Financial Times/Harris Interactive |date=2006-12-20 |accessdate=2007-01-17}}</ref> An official European Union survey provides corresponding figures: 18% of the EU population do not believe in a god; 27% accept the existence of some supernatural "spiritual life force", while 52% affirm belief in a specific god. The proportion of believers rises to 65% among those who had left school by the age of fifteen; survey respondents who considered themselves to be from a strict family background were more likely to believe in god than those who felt their upbringing lacked firm rules.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>

www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/news/file002.html StephenJayGould.org], Stephen Jay Gould archive. Retrieved on 2006-12-17</ref> In the same year Frank Sulloway of MIT and Michael Shermer of California State University conducted a study which found in their polling sample of "credentialed" U.S. adults (12% had Ph.Ds and 62% were college graduates) 64% believed in God, and there was a correlation indicating that religious conviction diminished with education level.<ref>{{cite book//www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/news/file002.html StephenJayGould.org], Stephen Jay Gould archive. Retrieved on 2006-12-17</ref> In the same year Frank Sulloway of MIT and Michael Shermer of California State University conducted a study which found in their polling sample of "credentialed" U.S. adults (12% had Ph.Ds and 62% were college graduates) 64% believed in God, and there was a correlation indicating that religious conviction diminished with education level.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> Such an inverse correlation between religiosity and intelligence has been found by 39 studies carried out between 1927 and 2002, according to an article in Mensa Magazine.<ref>According to Dawkins (2006), p. 103. Dawkins cites Bell, Paul. "Would you believe it?" Mensa Magazine, UK Edition, Feb. 2002, pp. 12–13. Analyzing 43 studies carried out since 1927, Bell found that all but four reported such a connection, and he concluded that "the higher one's intelligence or education level, the less one is likely to be religious or hold 'beliefs' of any kind."</ref> These findings broadly concur with a 1958 statistical meta-analysis from Professor Michael Argyle of Oxford University. He analyzed seven research studies that had investigated correlation between attitude to religion and measured intelligence among school and college students from the U.S. Although a clear negative correlation was found, the analysis did not identify causality but noted that factors such as authoritarian family background and social class may also have played a part.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>

religion.ssrc.org/reforum/Sherkat/ Religion and Higher Education: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly]. Social Science Research Council: 6 Feb. 2006. Retrieved 16 June 2007.</ref>//religion.ssrc.org/reforum/Sherkat/ Religion and Higher Education: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly]. Social Science Research Council: 6 Feb. 2006. Retrieved 16 June 2007.</ref>

Atheism, religion and morality

Main articles: Atheism and religion and Secular ethics

Although people who self-identify as atheists are usually assumed to be irreligious, some sects within major religions reject the existence of a personal, creator deity.<ref name="winston2">Modèle:Cite book</ref> In recent years, certain religious denominations have accumulated a number of openly atheistic followers, such as atheistic or humanistic Judaism<ref>Modèle:Cite web search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620//www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/subdivisions/humanistic.shtml</ref><ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> and Christian atheists.<ref>Modèle:Cite web search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620//www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/types/christianatheism.shtml</ref><ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref><ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>

As the strictest sense of positive atheism does not entail any specific beliefs outside of disbelief in God, atheists can hold any number of spiritual beliefs. For the same reason, atheists can hold a wide variety of ethical beliefs, ranging from the moral universalism of humanism, which holds that a moral code should be applied consistently to all humans, to moral nihilism, which holds that morality is meaningless.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref>

In past centuries, a number of theologians and literary figures, and a small selection of ethicists, have equated atheism with immorality, making the theological argument that morality must be derived from God and cannot exist without a wise creator.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb. "Among the many myths associated with religion, none is more widespread—or more disastrous in its effects—than the myth that moral values cannot be divorced from the belief in a god."</ref><ref>In Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov (Book Eleven: Brother Ivan Fyodorovich, Chapter 4) there is the famous argument that If there is no God, all things are permitted.: "'But what will become of men then?' I asked him, 'without God and immortal life? All things are lawful then, they can do what they like?'"</ref><ref name = "Kant CPR A811"> For Kant, the presupposition of God, soul, and freedom was a practical concern, for "Morality, by itself, constitutes a system, but happiness does not, unless it is distributed in exact proportion to morality. This, however, is possible in an intelligible world only under a wise author and ruler. Reason compels us to admit such a ruler, together with life in such a world, which we must consider as future life, or else all moral laws are to be considered as idle dreams..." (Critique of Pure Reason, A811).</ref> Moral precepts such as "murder is wrong" are seen as divine laws, requiring a divine lawmaker and judge. However, many atheists argue that treating morality legalistically involves a false analogy, and that morality does not depend upon a lawmaker in the same way that laws do,<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref> based on the Euthyphro dilemma, which either renders God unnecessary or morality arbitrary.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref>

Philosophers Susan Neiman<ref>Modèle:Cite video</ref> and Julian Baggini<ref> Modèle:Harvnb</ref> (among others) assert that behaving ethically only because of divine mandate is not true ethical behavior but merely blind obedience. Baggini argues that atheism is a superior basis for ethics, claiming that a moral basis external to religious imperatives is necessary to evaluate the morality of the imperatives themselves—to be able to discern, for example, that "thou shalt steal" is immoral even if one's religion instructs it—and that atheists, therefore, have the advantage of being more inclined to make such evaluations.<ref>Modèle:Harvnb.</ref>

www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=sharris_26_3 | accessdate = 2006-10-29 | publisher = Free Inquiry | year = 2006a}}</ref> Indeed, religious fundamentalism and extrinsic religion (when religion is held because it serves other, more ultimate interests<ref name=Moreira-almeida2006>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>) have been correlated with authoritarianism, dogmatism, and prejudice.<ref>See for example: Kahoe, R.D. (June 1977). "Intrinsic Religion and Authoritarianism: A Differentiated Relationship". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 16(2). pp. 179–182. Also see: Altemeyer, Bob and Bruce Hunsberger (1992). "Authoritarianism, Religious Fundamentalism, Quest, and Prejudice". International Journal for the Psychology of Religion. 2(2). pp. 113–133.</ref> This argument, combined with historical events that are argued to demonstrate the dangers of religion, such as the Crusades, inquisitions, and witch trials, are often used by antireligious atheists to justify their views.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Harris , Sam 
      
   

       (2005)
     
   
 
.  
. Truthdig 
   

. Retrieved on 2006-10-29.

 “In a world riven by ignorance, only the atheist refuses to deny the obvious: Religious faith promotes human violence to an astonishing degree.”

</ref> Theists have made very similar arguments, however, against atheists based on the state atheism of communist states.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>//www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=sharris_26_3 | accessdate = 2006-10-29 | publisher = Free Inquiry | year = 2006a}}</ref> Indeed, religious fundamentalism and extrinsic religion (when religion is held because it serves other, more ultimate interests<ref name=Moreira-almeida2006>Modèle:Cite journal</ref>) have been correlated with authoritarianism, dogmatism, and prejudice.<ref>See for example: Kahoe, R.D. (June 1977). "Intrinsic Religion and Authoritarianism: A Differentiated Relationship". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 16(2). pp. 179–182. Also see: Altemeyer, Bob and Bruce Hunsberger (1992). "Authoritarianism, Religious Fundamentalism, Quest, and Prejudice". International Journal for the Psychology of Religion. 2(2). pp. 113–133.</ref> This argument, combined with historical events that are argued to demonstrate the dangers of religion, such as the Crusades, inquisitions, and witch trials, are often used by antireligious atheists to justify their views.<ref>You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.

  Harris , Sam 
      
   

       (2005)
     
   
 
.  
. Truthdig 
   

. Retrieved on 2006-10-29.

 “In a world riven by ignorance, only the atheist refuses to deny the obvious: Religious faith promotes human violence to an astonishing degree.”

</ref> Theists have made very similar arguments, however, against atheists based on the state atheism of communist states.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>

See also

• List of atheists
• List of atheist organizations
• Discrimination against atheists

Further reading

• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Flynn, Tom, ed. (2007). The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1591023912.
• «  »
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Mackie, J. L. (1982). The Miracle of Theism: Arguments For and Against the Existence of God. Oxford: Oxford UP. ISBN 019824682X
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Martin, Michael, ed. (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Atheism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521603676
• Martin, Michael & Monnier, R., eds. (2003). The Impossibility of God. Amherst, NY: Prometheus. ISBN 1591021200
• Martin, Michael & Monnier, R., eds. (2006). The Improbability of God. Amherst, NY: Prometheus. ISBN 1591023815
• McTaggart, John & McTaggart, Ellis (1930). Some Dogmas of Religion. London: Edward Arnold & Co., new edition. [First published 1906] ISBN 0548149550
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Modèle:Cite book
• Smith, George Atheism: The Case Against God, (1974). ISBN 087975124X
• Stenger, Victor J. (2007). God: The Failed Hypothesis. How Science Shows that God Does Not Exist. Amherst, NY: Prometheus. ISBN 1591024811
• Modèle:Cite book

Notes and references

• «  »
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• «  »

External links

Modèle:Sisterlinks

• [Atheism Catégorie Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Atheism/] de l’annuaire dmoz. - Includes links to organizations and websites.

ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation] - Foundation dedicated to protecting the separation of church and state.//ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation] - Foundation dedicated to protecting the separation of church and state. ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation] - Foundation dedicated to protecting the separation of church and state.//www.positiveatheism.org/tochist.htm Positive atheism: Great Historical Writings] - Historical writing sorted by authors, contains a few items not in the Secular web library. ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation] - Foundation dedicated to protecting the separation of church and state.//www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/ Religion & Ethics—Atheism] at bbc.co.uk. ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation] - Foundation dedicated to protecting the separation of church and state.//www.infidels.org/library/ Secular Web library] - Library of both historical and modern writings, a comprehensive online resource for freely available material on atheism. ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation] - Foundation dedicated to protecting the separation of church and state.//www.agreeley.com/articles/hardcore.html The Demand for Religion] - A study on the demographics of Atheism by Wolfgang Jagodzinski (University of Cologne) and Andrew Greeley (University of Chicago and University of Arizona). ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation] - Foundation dedicated to protecting the separation of church and state.//publicliterature.org/books/necessity_of_atheism/xaa.php The Necessity of Atheism] - Complete work by Dr. D.M. Brooks.

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