Lysergic acid diethylamide
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Lysergic acid diethylamide, LSD, LSD-25, or acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the tryptamine family. LSD can be described by its users as a pilgrimage to one's own mind. Probably the best known psychedelic, it has been used mainly as a recreational drug, an entheogen, and a tool to supplement various practices for transcendence, including in meditation, psychonautics, art projects, and illicit (though at one time legal) psychedelic psychotherapy, whether self-administered or not. It is synthesized from lysergic acid derived from ergot, a grain fungus that typically grows on rye and was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann. The short form LSD comes from its early codename LSD-25, which is an abbreviation for the German "Lysergsäure-diethylamid" followed by a sequential number.<ref name="problem-child" /><ref name="tihkal" />
LSD is sensitive to oxygen, ultraviolet light, and chlorine, especially in solution, though its potency may last years if it is stored away from light and moisture at low temperature. In pure form it is colorless, odorless and mildly bitter.<ref name="tihkal" /> LSD is typically delivered orally, usually on a substrate such as absorbent blotter paper, a sugar cube, or gelatin. In its liquid form, it can be administered by intramuscular or intravenous injection. The threshold dosage level needed to cause a psychoactive effect on humans is of the order of 20 to 30 µg (micrograms).
www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2006/January/LSD.asp |title=LSD: cultural revolution and medical advances |accessdate=2007-09-27 |work=Royal Society of Chemistr }}</ref> A number of organizations—including the Beckley Foundation, MAPS, Heffter Research Institute and the Albert Hofmann Foundation—exist to fund, encourage and coordinate research into its medicinal uses.<ref> The Albert Hofmann Foundation
. Hofmann Foundation
. Retrieved on 2007-09-27. </ref>//www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2006/January/LSD.asp |title=LSD: cultural revolution and medical advances |accessdate=2007-09-27 |work=Royal Society of Chemistr }}</ref> A number of organizations—including the Beckley Foundation, MAPS, Heffter Research Institute and the Albert Hofmann Foundation—exist to fund, encourage and coordinate research into its medicinal uses.<ref> The Albert Hofmann Foundation
. Hofmann Foundation
. Retrieved on 2007-09-27. </ref>
Sommaire |
Synthesis
www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/LSD.html];//www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/LSD.html]; www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n3/06346hof.html MAPS-Volume 6 Number 3 Summer 1996]</ref> Ergot is a fungus that, by infecting cereal grains used for making rye breads, causes ergotism. After Dr. Hofmann succeeded in synthesizing ergobasine (which became the preeminent uterotonic), he began working on other amide derivatives of lysergic acid. LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) is one of the major drugs making up the hallucinogen class of drugs[1]; Lysergic acid diethylamide, the 25th lysergic acid derivative he synthesised (hence the name LSD-25) was developed initially as a probable analeptic, a circulatory and respiratory stimulant, based on its structural similarity to another known analeptic, nikethamide (nicotinic acid diethylamide). However, no extraordinary benefits of the compound were identified during animal tests (though laboratory notes briefly mention that the animals became "restless" under its effects), and its study was discontinued.<ref name="hyponichols" /> Its psychedelic properties were unknown until 5 years later, when Hofmann, acting on what he has called a "peculiar presentiment," returned to work on the chemical.<ref name="hyponichols"> Nichols , David
(2003-05-24) . Hypothesis on Albert Hofmann's Famous 1943 "Bicycle Day" . Hofmann Foundation
. Retrieved on 2007-09-27. </ref> While re-synthesizing LSD-25 for further study, Hofmann became dizzy and was forced to stop work. In his journal, Hofmann wrote that after becoming dizzy he proceeded home and was affected by a "remarkable restlessness, combined with a slight dizziness". Hofmann stated that as he lay in his bed he sank into a not unpleasant "intoxicated like condition" which was characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination. He stated that he was in a dreamlike state, and with his eyes closed he could see uninterrupted streams of "fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors." The condition lasted about two hours after which it faded away.<ref> Hofmann , Albert
(2003-05-24) . LSD: My Problem Child: Reflections on Sacred Drugs, Mysticism, and Science. . Council on Spiritual Practices
. Retrieved on 2007-09-27. </ref> Hofmann had attributed the psychoactive effects he experienced to accidentally absorbing a tiny amount of LSD-25 into his skin. Three days later he would take a much larger dose in order to test its effects further; this day would later be referred to as the "Bicycle Day".<ref name="problem-child">Hofmann, Albert. LSD—My Problem Child (McGraw-Hill, 1980). ISBN 0-07-029325-2. Available online here or here; accessed 2007-02-01.</ref>//www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n3/06346hof.html MAPS-Volume 6 Number 3 Summer 1996]</ref> Ergot is a fungus that, by infecting cereal grains used for making rye breads, causes ergotism. After Dr. Hofmann succeeded in synthesizing ergobasine (which became the preeminent uterotonic), he began working on other amide derivatives of lysergic acid. LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) is one of the major drugs making up the hallucinogen class of drugs[2]; Lysergic acid diethylamide, the 25th lysergic acid derivative he synthesised (hence the name LSD-25) was developed initially as a probable analeptic, a circulatory and respiratory stimulant, based on its structural similarity to another known analeptic, nikethamide (nicotinic acid diethylamide). However, no extraordinary benefits of the compound were identified during animal tests (though laboratory notes briefly mention that the animals became "restless" under its effects), and its study was discontinued.<ref name="hyponichols" /> Its psychedelic properties were unknown until 5 years later, when Hofmann, acting on what he has called a "peculiar presentiment," returned to work on the chemical.<ref name="hyponichols"> Nichols , David
(2003-05-24) . Hypothesis on Albert Hofmann's Famous 1943 "Bicycle Day" . Hofmann Foundation
. Retrieved on 2007-09-27. </ref> While re-synthesizing LSD-25 for further study, Hofmann became dizzy and was forced to stop work. In his journal, Hofmann wrote that after becoming dizzy he proceeded home and was affected by a "remarkable restlessness, combined with a slight dizziness". Hofmann stated that as he lay in his bed he sank into a not unpleasant "intoxicated like condition" which was characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination. He stated that he was in a dreamlike state, and with his eyes closed he could see uninterrupted streams of "fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors." The condition lasted about two hours after which it faded away.<ref> Hofmann , Albert
(2003-05-24) . LSD: My Problem Child: Reflections on Sacred Drugs, Mysticism, and Science. . Council on Spiritual Practices
. Retrieved on 2007-09-27. </ref> Hofmann had attributed the psychoactive effects he experienced to accidentally absorbing a tiny amount of LSD-25 into his skin. Three days later he would take a much larger dose in order to test its effects further; this day would later be referred to as the "Bicycle Day".<ref name="problem-child">Hofmann, Albert. LSD—My Problem Child (McGraw-Hill, 1980). ISBN 0-07-029325-2. Available online here or here; accessed 2007-02-01.</ref>
Bicycle day
www.a1b2c3.com/drugs/lsd01.htm |title=History Of LSD |accessdate=2007-09-27 |last=Hofmann |first=Albert }}</ref> Upon arriving the attending doctor could find no abnormal physical symptoms other than extremely dilated pupils. After spending several hours terrified that his body had been possessed by a demon, that his next door neighbor was a witch, and that his furniture was threatening him, Dr. Hofmann feared he had become completely insane. In his journal Hofmann said that the doctor saw no reason to prescribe medication and instead sent him to his bed. At this time Hofmann said that the feelings of fear had started to give way to feelings of good fortune and gratitude, and that he was now enjoying the colors and plays of shapes that persisted behind his closed eyes. Hofmann mentions seeing "fantastic images" surging past him, alternating and opening and closing themselves into circles and spirals and finally exploding into colored fountains and then rearranging themselves in a constant flux. Hofmann mentions that during the condition every acoustic perception, such as the sound of a passing automobile, was transformed into optical perceptions. Eventually Hofmann slept and upon awakening the next morning felt refreshed and clearheaded, though somewhat physically tired. He also stated that he had a sensation of well being and renewed life and that his breakfast tasted unusually delicious. Upon walking in his garden he remarked that all of his senses were "vibrating in a condition of highest sensitivity, which then persisted for the entire day".<ref name="histlsd" />//www.a1b2c3.com/drugs/lsd01.htm |title=History Of LSD |accessdate=2007-09-27 |last=Hofmann |first=Albert }}</ref> Upon arriving the attending doctor could find no abnormal physical symptoms other than extremely dilated pupils. After spending several hours terrified that his body had been possessed by a demon, that his next door neighbor was a witch, and that his furniture was threatening him, Dr. Hofmann feared he had become completely insane. In his journal Hofmann said that the doctor saw no reason to prescribe medication and instead sent him to his bed. At this time Hofmann said that the feelings of fear had started to give way to feelings of good fortune and gratitude, and that he was now enjoying the colors and plays of shapes that persisted behind his closed eyes. Hofmann mentions seeing "fantastic images" surging past him, alternating and opening and closing themselves into circles and spirals and finally exploding into colored fountains and then rearranging themselves in a constant flux. Hofmann mentions that during the condition every acoustic perception, such as the sound of a passing automobile, was transformed into optical perceptions. Eventually Hofmann slept and upon awakening the next morning felt refreshed and clearheaded, though somewhat physically tired. He also stated that he had a sensation of well being and renewed life and that his breakfast tasted unusually delicious. Upon walking in his garden he remarked that all of his senses were "vibrating in a condition of highest sensitivity, which then persisted for the entire day".<ref name="histlsd" />
Early research
Early research on LSD saw its potency and noticed that even in extremely small quantities it could significantly alter the mental functioning of healthy volunteers. Due to the fact that LSD could produce changes in perceptions and emotions, early researchers hypothesized that the cause of some mental illnesses, particularly schizophrenia, were due to the human body releasing small quantities of substances identical to LSD.<ref name="sgrof">Modèle:Cite book</ref> Much of the research during the late 1940's dealt with this hypothesis and many LSD sessions conducted for scientific study were often termed "experimental psychoses", and this is where the terms "psychoactive" , "psychotomimetic" and "hallucinogenic" were coined to refer to such drugs. Generally these studies revolved around the attempt to block the effects of LSD with premedication, which was thought to be able to lead to medical treatments for schizophrenia. The studies showed that there was no such connection (the effects of LSD and those of schizophrenia are drastically different and have different causes and functions). Some early researchers also started to suggest that LSD could have positive effects and could be used as a treatment for patients with psychiatric illnesses. Some reports suggested that even small doses of LSD could have dramatic effects on the personalities and attitudes and even lifestyles of test subjects. Early LSD research also found evidence of the drug's ability to facilitate relief of various emotional episodes related to traumatic memories from childhood of patients.<ref name="sgrof" />
Government research
hss.energy.gov/healthsafety/ohre/roadmap/achre/chap3_4.html | work =Human Radiation Experiments | pages = | accessdate = 2007-10-04 | language = }}</ref>//hss.energy.gov/healthsafety/ohre/roadmap/achre/chap3_4.html | work =Human Radiation Experiments | pages = | accessdate = 2007-10-04 | language = }}</ref>
findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1374/is_5_59/ai_55722247 |title=Lessons Learned A Half-Century of Experimenting on Humans - U.S. Army experiments |accessdate=2007-10-04 |last=D. Moreno |first=Jonathan |date=September 1999 |work=Humanist }}</ref>//findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1374/is_5_59/ai_55722247 |title=Lessons Learned A Half-Century of Experimenting on Humans - U.S. Army experiments |accessdate=2007-10-04 |last=D. Moreno |first=Jonathan |date=September 1999 |work=Humanist }}</ref>
www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2004/09/12/MNG468MM8N1.DTL |title=Son probes strange death of WMD worker He believes agents murdered employee of Army to protect government secrets |accessdate=2007-10-04 |last=Shane |first=Scott |date=2004-09-12 |work=Baltimore Sun }}</ref> Most of the MKULTRA records were deliberately destroyed in 1973. The controversy contributed to President Ford's creation of the Rockefeller Commission and new regulations on informed consent.<ref name="CIADOD" />The British government also engaged in LSD testing; in 1953 and 1954, scientists working for MI6 dosed servicemen in an effort to find a "truth drug". The test subjects were not informed that they were being given LSD, and had in fact been told that they were participating in a medical project to find a cure for the common cold. One subject, aged 19 at the time, reported seeing "walls melting, cracks appearing in people's faces … eyes would run down cheeks, Salvador Dalí-type faces … a flower would turn into a slug". After keeping the trials secret for many years, MI6 agreed in 2006 to pay the former test subjects financial compensation. Like the CIA, MI6 decided that LSD was not a practical drug for mind control purposes.<ref>Rob Evans, "MI6 pays out over secret LSD mind control tests". The Guardian 24 February 2006.</ref>//www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2004/09/12/MNG468MM8N1.DTL |title=Son probes strange death of WMD worker He believes agents murdered employee of Army to protect government secrets |accessdate=2007-10-04 |last=Shane |first=Scott |date=2004-09-12 |work=Baltimore Sun }}</ref> Most of the MKULTRA records were deliberately destroyed in 1973. The controversy contributed to President Ford's creation of the Rockefeller Commission and new regulations on informed consent.<ref name="CIADOD" />The British government also engaged in LSD testing; in 1953 and 1954, scientists working for MI6 dosed servicemen in an effort to find a "truth drug". The test subjects were not informed that they were being given LSD, and had in fact been told that they were participating in a medical project to find a cure for the common cold. One subject, aged 19 at the time, reported seeing "walls melting, cracks appearing in people's faces … eyes would run down cheeks, Salvador Dalí-type faces … a flower would turn into a slug". After keeping the trials secret for many years, MI6 agreed in 2006 to pay the former test subjects financial compensation. Like the CIA, MI6 decided that LSD was not a practical drug for mind control purposes.<ref>Rob Evans, "MI6 pays out over secret LSD mind control tests". The Guardian 24 February 2006.</ref>
Recreational use
deoxy.org/leary.htm</ref> and Dr. Richard Alpert, <ref>attained from the Ram Dass Tape Library,http://www.ramdasstapes.org/biography.htm</ref> became convinced of LSD's potential as a tool for spiritual growth. By the spring of 1961 Dr. Timothy Leary claimed to have given psychedelic drugs to over 200 subjects, saying that eighty-five percent of his subjects reported that the experience was the most educational of their lives.<ref> {{cite book//deoxy.org/leary.htm</ref> and Dr. Richard Alpert, <ref>attained from the Ram Dass Tape Library,http://www.ramdasstapes.org/biography.htm</ref> became convinced of LSD's potential as a tool for spiritual growth. By the spring of 1961 Dr. Timothy Leary claimed to have given psychedelic drugs to over 200 subjects, saying that eighty-five percent of his subjects reported that the experience was the most educational of their lives.<ref> Modèle:Cite book</ref>
www.timothyleary.us/</ref>//www.timothyleary.us/</ref>
The drug was banned in the United States in 1966, with scientific therapeutic research as well as individual research also becoming prohibitively difficult. Many other countries, under pressure from the U.S., quickly followed suit. Since 1967, underground recreational and therapeutic LSD use has continued in many countries, supported by a black market and popular demand for the drug. Legal, academic research experiments on the effects and mechanisms of LSD are also conducted on occasion, but rarely involve human subjects. Despite its proscription, the hippie counterculture continued to promote the regular use of LSD, led by figures such as Leary and psychedelic rock bands such as The Doors and The Grateful Dead. "Acidhead" has been used as a (sometimes derogatory) name for people who frequently use LSD. According to Leigh Henderson and William Glass, two researchers associated with the NIDA who performed a 1994 review of the literature, LSD use is relatively uncommon when compared to the abuse of alcohol, cocaine, and prescription drugs. Over the previous fifteen years, long-term usage trends stayed fairly stable, with roughly 5% of the population using the drug and most users being in the 16 to 23 age range.<ref>{{cite journal www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n1/06154lsd.html//www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n1/06154lsd.html | title = A Review of "LSD : Still With Us After All These Years" | journal = Newsletter of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies | first = Neal M. | last = Goldsmith | year = 1995 | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | accessdate = 2006-01-31 }}</ref> Henderson and Glass found that LSD users typically partook of the substance on an infrequent, episodic basis, then "maturing out" after two to four years. Overall, LSD appeared to have comparatively few adverse health consequences, of which "bad trips" were the most commonly reported (and, the researchers found, one of the chief reasons youths stop using the drug).<ref name="henderson-glass">Modèle:Cite book</ref>
Dosage
Dosages of LSD are measured in micrograms (µg), or millionths of a gram. By comparison, dosages of almost all other drugs, both recreational and medicinal, are measured in milligrams (mg), or thousandths of a gram. Hofmann determined that an active dose of mescaline, roughly 0.2 to 0.5g, has effects comparable to 100µg or less of LSD; put another way, LSD is between five to ten thousand times more active than mescaline.<ref name="problem-child" />
While a single dose of LSD may be between 100 and 500 micrograms — an amount roughly equal to one-tenth the mass of a grain of sand — threshold effects can be felt with as little as 25 micrograms.<ref name="greiner">Modèle:Cite journal</ref>
Generally, the dosage that will produce a threshold psychotropic effect in humans is considered to be 20 to 30µg.<ref>Stoll, W.A. (1947). Ein neues, in sehr kleinen Mengen wirsames Phantastikum. Schweiz. Arch. Neur. 60,483.</ref><ref name="greiner" /> According to Glass and Henderson's review, black-market LSD is largely iterated though sometimes contaminated by manufacturing by-products. Typical doses in the 1960s ranged from 200 to 1000µg while street samples of the 1970s contained 30 to 300µg. By the 1980s, the amount had reduced to between 100 to 125 µg, lowering more in the 1990s to the 20–80 µg range. (Lower doses, Glass and Henderson found, generally produce fewer bad trips.)<ref name="henderson-glass" /> Dosages by frequent users can reach up to 1,200 µg (1.2 mg), although such a high dosage may precipitate severe physical and psychological effects.
Estimates for the lethal dosage (LD50) of LSD range from between 200 µg/kg to more than 1 mg/kg of human body mass, though most sources report that there are no known human cases of such an overdose. Other sources note one report of a suspected fatal overdose of LSD occurring in November 1975 in Kentucky in which there were indications that ~1/3 of a gram (320 mg or 320,000 µg) had been injected intravenously, i.e., over 3,000 more typical oral doses of ~100 µg had been injected.<ref name="erowid-dosage">{{cite web www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n1/06154lsd.html//www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd_dose.shtml | title = LSD Vault: Dosage | date = 2006-07-06 | accessdate = 2007-01-31}}</ref><ref>Modèle:Cite web www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n1/06154lsd.html//www.erowid.org/references/refs view.php?A=ShowDocPartFrame&ID=1389&DocPartID=1151</ref>
Tusko the elephant died shortly after being injected with 297 mg in 1962, but whether the LSD was the cause of his death is controversial.
LSD is not considered addictive, in that its users do not exhibit the medical community's commonly accepted definitions of addiction and physical dependence. Rapid tolerance build-up prevents regular use, and there is cross-tolerance shown between LSD, mescaline<ref name="isbell_mescaline">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> and psilocybin.<ref name="isbell_psilocybin">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> This tolerance diminishes after a few days without use and is probably caused by downregulation of 5-HT2A receptors in the brain.
Adverse effects of psychotropics are often treated with fast acting benzodiazepines like diazepam or triazolam that have calming and antianxiety effects but do not directly affect the specific actions of psychotropics. Many rumors about home remedies to counteract psychedelic effects are circulated, including sugar, calcium, orange juice or milk, but none of them have been shown to be effective and they make no sense from a pharmacological standpoint. Theoretically, specific 5-HT2A receptor antagonists, such as Seroquel, would be direct antidotes, although reports on Erowid would state otherwise.
Effects
Pharmacokinetics
www.erowid.org/library/books_online/tihkal/tihkal26.shtml LSD]", in TiHKAL (Berkeley: Transform Press, 1997). ISBN 0-963-00969-9.</ref> - Sandoz's prospectus for "Delysid" warned: "intermittent disturbances of effect may occasionally persist for several days."<ref name="problem-child" /> Contrary to early reports and common belief, LSD effects do not last longer than significant levels of the drug in the blood. Aghajanian and Bing found LSD had an elimination half-life of 175 minutes,<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> while, more recently, Papac and Foltz reported that 1 µg/kg oral LSD given to a single male volunteer had an apparent plasma half-life of 5.1 hours, with a peak plasma concentration of 1.9 ng/mL at 3 hours post-dose.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> Notably, Aghajanian and Bing found that blood concentrations of LSD matched the time course of volunteers' difficulties with simple arithmetic problems.//www.erowid.org/library/books_online/tihkal/tihkal26.shtml LSD]", in TiHKAL (Berkeley: Transform Press, 1997). ISBN 0-963-00969-9.</ref> - Sandoz's prospectus for "Delysid" warned: "intermittent disturbances of effect may occasionally persist for several days."<ref name="problem-child" /> Contrary to early reports and common belief, LSD effects do not last longer than significant levels of the drug in the blood. Aghajanian and Bing found LSD had an elimination half-life of 175 minutes,<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> while, more recently, Papac and Foltz reported that 1 µg/kg oral LSD given to a single male volunteer had an apparent plasma half-life of 5.1 hours, with a peak plasma concentration of 1.9 ng/mL at 3 hours post-dose.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> Notably, Aghajanian and Bing found that blood concentrations of LSD matched the time course of volunteers' difficulties with simple arithmetic problems.
Pharmacodynamics
www.erowid.org/references/refs_view.php?A=ShowDoc1&ID=6318|id=PMID 14761703}}</ref> Recreational doses of LSD can affect 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2C, 5-HT5A, 5-HT5B, and 5-HT6 receptors. The psychotropic effects of LSD are attributed to its strong partial agonist effects at 5-HT2A receptors as specific 5-HT2A agonist drugs are psychotropics and largely 5-HT2A specific antagonists block the psychotropic activity of LSD.<ref name="nichols" /> Exactly how this produces the drug's effects is unknown, but it is thought that it works by increasing glutamate release and hence excitation in the cortex, specifically in layers IV and V.<ref>BilZ0r. "The Neuropharmacology of Hallucinogens: a technical overview". Erowid, v3.1 (August 2005).</ref> In the later stages, LSD might act through DARPP-32 - related pathways that are likely the same for multiple drugs including cocaine, methamphetamine, nicotine, caffeine, PCP, ethanol and morphine.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal//www.erowid.org/references/refs view.php?A=ShowDoc1&ID=6318</ref> Recreational doses of LSD can affect 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2C, 5-HT5A, 5-HT5B, and 5-HT6 receptors. The psychotropic effects of LSD are attributed to its strong partial agonist effects at 5-HT2A receptors as specific 5-HT2A agonist drugs are psychotropics and largely 5-HT2A specific antagonists block the psychotropic activity of LSD.<ref name="nichols" /> Exactly how this produces the drug's effects is unknown, but it is thought that it works by increasing glutamate release and hence excitation in the cortex, specifically in layers IV and V.<ref>BilZ0r. "The Neuropharmacology of Hallucinogens: a technical overview". Erowid, v3.1 (August 2005).</ref> In the later stages, LSD might act through DARPP-32 - related pathways that are likely the same for multiple drugs including cocaine, methamphetamine, nicotine, caffeine, PCP, ethanol and morphine.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> A particularly compelling look at the actions of LSD was performed by Barry Jacobs recording from electrodes implanted into cat Raphe nuclei.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal
</ref> Behaviorally relevant doses of LSD result in a complete blockade of action potential activity in the dorsal raphe, effectively shutting off the principal endogenous source of serotonin to the telencephalon.www.maps.org/w3pb/new/1955/1955_giberti_3993_1.pdf|title=Prime esperienze di antaonismo psicofarmacologico|journal=Sistema Nervoso|volume=4|year=1955|pages=301–309}}</ref> While it also may not end an LSD trip, the best chemical treatment for a "bad trip" is an anxiolytic agent such as diazepam (Valium) or another benzodiazepine. Some have suggested that administration of niacin (nicotinic acid, vitamin B3) could be useful to end the LSD user's experience of a "bad trip".<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> The nicotinic acid in niacin as opposed to nicotinamide, will produce a full body heat rash, due to widening of peripheral blood vessels. The effect is somewhat akin to a poison ivy rash. Although it is not clear to what extent the effects of LSD are reduced by this intervention, the physical effect of an itchy skin rash may itself tend to distract the user from feelings of anxiety. Indeed, nicotinic acid was experienced as a stressor by all tested persons. The rash itself is temporary and disappears within a few hours. It is questionable if this method could be effective for people having serious adverse psychological reactions.//www.maps.org/w3pb/new/1955/1955_giberti_3993_1.pdf|title=Prime esperienze di antaonismo psicofarmacologico|journal=Sistema Nervoso|volume=4|year=1955|pages=301–309}}</ref> While it also may not end an LSD trip, the best chemical treatment for a "bad trip" is an anxiolytic agent such as diazepam (Valium) or another benzodiazepine. Some have suggested that administration of niacin (nicotinic acid, vitamin B3) could be useful to end the LSD user's experience of a "bad trip".<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> The nicotinic acid in niacin as opposed to nicotinamide, will produce a full body heat rash, due to widening of peripheral blood vessels. The effect is somewhat akin to a poison ivy rash. Although it is not clear to what extent the effects of LSD are reduced by this intervention, the physical effect of an itchy skin rash may itself tend to distract the user from feelings of anxiety. Indeed, nicotinic acid was experienced as a stressor by all tested persons. The rash itself is temporary and disappears within a few hours. It is questionable if this method could be effective for people having serious adverse psychological reactions.
Physical
www.maps.org/w3pb/new/1967/1967_kast_3881_1.pdf}}</ref> Even at low (sub-psychedelic) dosages, it was found to be at least as effective as traditional opiates while being much longer lasting (pain reduction lasting as long as a week after peak effects had subsided). Kast attributed this effect to a decrease in anxiety. This reported effect is being tested (though not using LSD) in an ongoing (as of 2006) study of the effects of the psychedelic tryptamine psilocybin on anxiety in terminal cancer patients.//www.maps.org/w3pb/new/1967/1967_kast_3881_1.pdf}}</ref> Even at low (sub-psychedelic) dosages, it was found to be at least as effective as traditional opiates while being much longer lasting (pain reduction lasting as long as a week after peak effects had subsided). Kast attributed this effect to a decrease in anxiety. This reported effect is being tested (though not using LSD) in an ongoing (as of 2006) study of the effects of the psychedelic tryptamine psilocybin on anxiety in terminal cancer patients.
www.maps.org/research/cluster/psilo-lsd/ Research into psilocybin and LSD as cluster headache treatment]", and he makes an equivalent statement in an Health Report interview on Australian Radio National (9 August 1999). Pages accessed 2007-01-31.</ref> Although the phenomenon has not been formally investigated, case reports indicate that LSD and psilocybin can reduce cluster pain and also interrupt the cluster-headache cycle, preventing future headaches from occurring. Currently existing treatments include various ergolines, among other chemicals, so LSD's efficacy may not be surprising. A dose-response study, testing the effectiveness of both LSD and psilocybin is currently, as of 2007, being planned at McLean Hospital. A 2006 study by McLean researchers interviewed 53 cluster-headache sufferers who treated themselves with either LSD or psilocybin, finding that a majority of the users of either drug reported beneficial effects.<ref name="sewell-etal2006">Modèle:Cite journal</ref> LSD is strongly fluorescent and will glow bluish-white under UV light.//www.erowid.org/library/books_online/tihkal/tihkal26.shtml |title=Erowid Online Books : "TIHKAL" - #26 LSD-25 |accessdate=2007-11-12 |format= |work=}}</ref> LSD is strongly fluorescent and will glow bluish-white under UV light.
Stability
"LSD," writes the chemist Alexander Shulgin, "is an unusually fragile molecule."<ref name="tihkal" /> It is stable for indefinite amounts of time if stored, as a solid salt or dissolved in water, at low temperature and protected from air and light exposure. Two portions of its molecular structure are particularly sensitive, the carboxamide attachment at the 8-position and the double bond between the 8-position and the aromatic ring. The former is affected by high pH, and if perturbed will produce isolysergic acid diethylamide (iso-LSD), which is biologically inactive. If water or alcohol adds to the double bond (especially in the presence of light), LSD converts to "lumi-LSD", which is totally inactive in human beings, to the best of current knowledge. Furthermore, chlorine destroys LSD molecules on contact; even though chlorinated tap water typically contains only a slight amount of chlorine, because a typical LSD solution only contains a small amount of LSD, dissolving LSD in tap water is likely to completely eliminate the substance.<ref name="tihkal" />
A controlled study was undertaken to determine the stability of LSD in pooled urine samples.<ref>Modèle:Cite journal</ref> The concentrations of LSD in urine samples were followed over time at various temperatures, in different types of storage containers, at various exposures to different wavelengths of light, and at varying pH values. These studies demonstrated no significant loss in LSD concentration at 25 °C for up to 4 weeks. After 4 weeks of incubation, a 30% loss in LSD concentration at 37 °C and up to a 40% at 45 °C were observed. Urine fortified with LSD and stored in amber glass or nontransparent polyethylene containers showed no change in concentration under any light conditions. Stability of LSD in transparent containers under light was dependent on the distance between the light source and the samples, the wavelength of light, exposure time, and the intensity of light. After prolonged exposure to heat in alkaline pH conditions, 10 to 15% of the parent LSD epimerized to iso-LSD. Under acidic conditions, less than 5% of the LSD was converted to iso-LSD. It was also demonstrated that trace amounts of metal ions in buffer or urine could catalyze the decomposition of LSD and that this process can be avoided by the addition of EDTA.
Production
www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/dea/product/lsd/lsd-5.htm LSD in the US – Manufacture]", DEA Publications.</ref>//www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/dea/product/lsd/lsd-5.htm LSD in the US – Manufacture]", DEA Publications.</ref>
Manufacturing LSD requires laboratory equipment and experience in the field of organic chemistry. It takes two or three days to produce 30 to 100 grams of pure compound. It is believed that LSD usually is not produced in large quantities, but rather in a series of small batches. This technique minimizes the loss of precursor chemicals in case a synthesis step does not work as expected.<ref name="DEA-pub" />
Forms of LSD
LSD is produced in crystalline form and then mixed with excipients or redissolved for production in ingestible forms. Liquid solution is either distributed as-is in small vials or, more commonly, sprayed onto or soaked into a distribution medium. Historically, LSD solutions were first sold on sugar cubes, but practical considerations forced a change to tablet form. Early pills or tabs were flattened on both ends and identified by color: "gray flat", "blue flat", and so forth. Next came "domes", which were rounded on one end, then "double domes" rounded on both ends, and finally small tablets known as "microdots". Later still, LSD began to be distributed in thin squares of gelatin ("window panes", "gel tabs") and, most commonly, as blotter paper: sheets of paper which are soaked into an LSD solution, dried, and perforated into small squares of individual dosage units. The paper is then cut into small square pieces called "tabs" or "hits". The user can then absorb the LSD out of the paper using his/her tongue, or simply swallow it. Individual producers often print designs onto the paper serving to identify different makers, batches or strengths, and such "blotter art" often emphasizes psychedelic themes.
www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd_faq.shtml Frequently Asked Questions] via Erowid</ref><ref>{{cite web//www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd_faq.shtml Frequently Asked Questions] via Erowid</ref><ref>{{cite web www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n1/06154lsd.html//www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/streetterms/ByType.asp?intTypeID=6 | title = Street Terms: Drugs and the Drug Trade | publisher = Office of National Drug Control Policy | date = 2005-04-05 | accessdate = 2007-01-31 }}</ref> On occasion, authorities have encountered the drug in other forms — including powder or crystal, and capsule. More than 200 types of LSD tablets have been encountered since 1969 and more than 350 paper designs have been observed since 1975. Designs range from simple five-point stars in black and white to exotic artwork in full four-color print.
Legal status
United States
www.usdoj.gov/dea/concern/lsd.html]: LSD is a Schedule I substance under the Controlled Substances Act.</ref> This means it is illegal to manufacture, buy, possess, process or distribute LSD without a DEA license. There can also be substantial discrepancies between the amount of chemical LSD that one possesses and the amount of possession with which one can be charged in the U.S. This is because LSD is almost always present in a medium (e.g. blotter or neutral liquid), and the amount that can be considered with respect to sentencing is the total mass of the drug and its medium. This discrepancy was the subject of 1995 United States Supreme Court case, Neal v. U.S.<ref>{{cite court//www.usdoj.gov/dea/concern/lsd.html]: LSD is a Schedule I substance under the Controlled Substances Act.</ref> This means it is illegal to manufacture, buy, possess, process or distribute LSD without a DEA license. There can also be substantial discrepancies between the amount of chemical LSD that one possesses and the amount of possession with which one can be charged in the U.S. This is because LSD is almost always present in a medium (e.g. blotter or neutral liquid), and the amount that can be considered with respect to sentencing is the total mass of the drug and its medium. This discrepancy was the subject of 1995 United States Supreme Court case, Neal v. U.S.<ref>Modèle:Cite court, originating from U.S. v. Neal, 46 F.3d 1405 (7th Cir. 1995)</ref> The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances (adopted in 1971) requires its parties to prohibit LSD. Hence, it is illegal in all parties to the convention, which includes the United States, Australia, and most of Europe. However, enforcement of extant laws varies from country to country.
LSD is easy to conceal and smuggle. A tiny vial can contain thousands of doses. Not much money is made from retail-level sales of LSD, so the drug is typically not associated with the violent organized criminal organizations involved in cocaine and opiate smuggling.
Canada
laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/C-38.8//20070705/en?command=HOME&caller=SI&fragment=lsd&search_type=all&day=5&month=7&year=2007&search_domain=cs&showall=L&statuteyear=all&lengthannual=50&length=50|title=Controlled Drugs and Substances Act|accessdate=2007-07-05|publisher=Canadian Department of Justice|year=1996| author=Canadian government| work=Justice Laws}}</ref> Every person who seeks to obtain the substance without disclosing authorization to obtain such substances 30 days prior to obtaining another prescription from a practitioner is guilty of an indictable offense and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years. Possession for purpose of trafficking is guilty of an indictable offense and liable to imprisonment for 10 years.//laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/C-38.8//20070705/en?command=HOME&caller=SI&fragment=lsd&search_type=all&day=5&month=7&year=2007&search_domain=cs&showall=L&statuteyear=all&lengthannual=50&length=50|title=Controlled Drugs and Substances Act|accessdate=2007-07-05|publisher=Canadian Department of Justice|year=1996| author=Canadian government| work=Justice Laws}}</ref> Every person who seeks to obtain the substance without disclosing authorization to obtain such substances 30 days prior to obtaining another prescription from a practitioner is guilty of an indictable offense and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years. Possession for purpose of trafficking is guilty of an indictable offense and liable to imprisonment for 10 years.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, Lysergide and derivatives are regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance, and can be used legally only by health professionals and for university research purposes. The substance can be given by pharmacists under a prescription. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined $10,000(HKD). The maximum penalty for trafficking or illegally manufacturing the substance is a $5,000,000 (HKD) fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000 (HKD) fine and/or 7 years' imprisonment.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, LSD is classed as a class A drug. This means that, without a license, possession of the drug is punishable with 7 years imprisonment and/or an unlimited fine, and trafficking is punishable with life imprisonment and an unlimited fine (see main article on drug punishments Misuse of Drugs Act 1971).
United States: Prior to 1967
Beginning in the 1950s the Central Intelligence Agency began a research program code named Project MKULTRA. Experiments included administering LSD to CIA employees, military personnel, doctors, other government agents, prostitutes, mentally ill patients, and members of the general public in order to study their reactions, usually without the subject's knowledge. The project was revealed in the US congressional Rockefeller Commission report.
Prior to October 6th, 1966, LSD was available legally in the United States as an experimental psychiatric drug. (LSD "apostle" Al Hubbard actively promoted the drug between the 1950s and the 1970s and introduced thousands of people to it.) The US Federal Government classified it as a Schedule I drug according to the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. As such, the Drug Enforcement Administration holds that LSD meets the following three criteria: it is deemed to have a high potential for abuse; it has no legitimate medical use in treatment; and there is a lack of accepted safety for its use under medical supervision. (LSD prohibition does not make an exception for religious use.) Lysergic acid and lysergic acid amide, LSD precursors, are both classified in Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act. Ergotamine tartrate, a precursor to lysergic acid, is regulated under the Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act.
LSD has been manufactured illegally since the 1960s. Historically, LSD was distributed not for profit, but because those who made and distributed it truly believed that the psychedelic experience could do good for humanity, that it expanded the mind and could bring understanding and love. A limited number of chemists, probably fewer than a dozen, are believed to have manufactured nearly all of the illicit LSD available in the United States. The best known of these is undoubtedly Augustus Owsley Stanley III, usually known simply as Owsley. The former chemistry student set up a private LSD lab in the mid-Sixties in San Francisco and supplied the LSD consumed at the famous Merry Pranksters parties held by Ken Kesey and his Merry Pranksters, and other major events such as the Gathering of the tribes in San Francisco in January 1967. He also had close social connections to leading San Francisco bands the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane and Big Brother and The Holding Company, regularly supplied them with his LSD and also worked as their live sound engineer and made many tapes of these groups in concert. Owsley's LSD activities — immortalized by Steely Dan in their song "Kid Charlemagne" — ended with his arrest at the end of 1967, but some other manufacturers probably operated continuously for 30 years or more. Announcing Owsley's first bust in 1966, The San Francisco Chronicle's headline "LSD Millionaire Arrested" inspired the rare Grateful Dead song "Alice D. Millionaire."
United States: 1970 to the present
www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-155843636.html Reported LSD-Related Death was Not LSD] From Spokane Review</ref> These other drugs are sold by unscrupulous dealers because they are hallucinogenic and are potent enough that a single dose can fit on one or more blotter tabs and thus achieving the same appearance as typical blotter acid would. The duration of action of DOI and especially DOB is typically longer than LSD, but all of these drugs can last 12 hours or more. Importantly, the toxicity of 5-MeO-AMT and all of the hallucinogenic amphetamines such as DOI, are either unknown, or much higher than LSD, and thus the consumption of large quantities of these other drugs, under the guise of being LSD, can be potentially dangerous.//www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-155843636.html Reported LSD-Related Death was Not LSD] From Spokane Review</ref> These other drugs are sold by unscrupulous dealers because they are hallucinogenic and are potent enough that a single dose can fit on one or more blotter tabs and thus achieving the same appearance as typical blotter acid would. The duration of action of DOI and especially DOB is typically longer than LSD, but all of these drugs can last 12 hours or more. Importantly, the toxicity of 5-MeO-AMT and all of the hallucinogenic amphetamines such as DOI, are either unknown, or much higher than LSD, and thus the consumption of large quantities of these other drugs, under the guise of being LSD, can be potentially dangerous.
Pickard and Apperson
web.archive.org/web/20070130103015/http://washingtontimes.com/national/20031126-110958-8471r.htm Man sentenced to life in prison as dealer of LSD]". The Washington Times 27 November 2003.</ref>//web.archive.org/web/20070130103015/http://washingtontimes.com/national/20031126-110958-8471r.htm Man sentenced to life in prison as dealer of LSD]". The Washington Times 27 November 2003.</ref>
Pickard was an alleged member of the Brotherhood of Eternal Love group that produced and sold LSD in California during the late 1960s and early 1970s. It is believed he had links to other "cooks" associated with this group — an original source of the drug back in the 1960s — and his arrest may have forced other operations to cease production, leading to the large decline in street availability.
The DEA claims that these two individuals were responsible for supplying a third of the LSD in the United States and maybe the world,<ref> Rosenfeld , Seth
. " 2 Bay Area Men Busted in Big LSD Lab Raid www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n1/06154lsd.html//www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/chronicle/archive/2000/12/07/MN154990.DTL " , San Francisco Chronicle , 2000-12-07 , p. A-1 . Retrieved on 2007-11-18 . </ref> however, the government quoted seizure amounts in connection with this case have been seriously questioned.<ref> Grim , Ryan . " The 91-Pound Acid Trip - The numbers touted by the government in its big LSD bust just don't add up www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n1/06154lsd.html//www.slate.com/id/2114793/ " , Slate , Washington Post / Newsweek Interactive Co , 2005-03-14 . Retrieved on 2007-11-18 . </ref>
In November of 2003, Pickard was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole, and Apperson was sentenced to 30 years imprisonment without parole, after being convicted in Federal Court of running a large scale LSD manufacturing operation out of several clandestine laboratories, including a former missile silo near Wamego, Kansas.
Modern distribution
LSD manufacturers and traffickers can be categorized into two groups: A few large scale producers, such as the aforementioned Pickard and Apperson, and an equally limited number of small, clandestine chemists, consisting of independent producers who, operating on a comparatively limited scale, can be found throughout the country. As a group, independent producers are of less concern to the Drug Enforcement Administration than the larger groups, as their product reaches only local markets.
See also
- Mind at Large
- ALD-52
- Bogle-Chandler case, deaths mistakenly attributed to LSD overdoses
- Drug urban legends
- Entheogen
- Psychedelic psychotherapy
- United States v. Stanley, US Supreme Court case
- Related chemical compounds: ergolines, LSA, psilocybin, DMT, serotonin
References
Further reading
www.sunrisedancer.com/radicalreader/includes/inc_hitting.asp?iLink=6])//www.sunrisedancer.com/radicalreader/includes/inc_hitting.asp?iLink=6])
- Marks, John. The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control (1979), 0-8129-0773-6
- Grof, Stanislav. LSD Psychotherapy. (April 10, 2001)
www.sunrisedancer.com/radicalreader/includes/inc_hitting.asp?iLink=3]//www.sunrisedancer.com/radicalreader/includes/inc_hitting.asp?iLink=3]
External links
www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd.shtml Erowid -> LSD Information]//www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd.shtml Erowid -> LSD Information] www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd.shtml Erowid -> LSD Information]//leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=10 The Lycaeum Archive -> LSD] www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd.shtml Erowid -> LSD Information]//www.erowid.org/library/books_online/tihkal/tihkal26.shtml TIHKAL entry for LSD]¶ www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd.shtml Erowid -> LSD Information]//www.sci-con.org/2003/06/the-neurochemistry-of-psychdelic-experiences/ The Neurochemistry of Psychedelic Experience], Science & Consciousness Review¶ www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd.shtml Erowid -> LSD Information]//www.maps.org/research/cluster/psilo-lsd/ Current LSD Research – MAPS]¶ www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd.shtml Erowid -> LSD Information]//www.lsd.info International 3 day conference on LSD in Basel]¶ www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd.shtml Erowid -> LSD Information]//www.talktofrank.com/drugs.aspx?id=192 Talk to Frank]UK government anti-drug site on LSD¶ www.erowid.org/chemicals/lsd/lsd.shtml Erowid -> LSD Information]//ahp.yorku.ca/?p=97 Scholarly bibliography on the histories of LSD use]¶ www.psychedelic-library.org/doors.htm The Doors of Perception]".¶//www.psychedelic-library.org/doors.htm The Doors of Perception]".¶
Modèle:Hallucinogenic lysergamides
Modèle:TiHKALModèle:Link FA Modèle:Link FA
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