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Image:TerroristAttacksAlQaeda.png
Map of recent major attacks attributed to al-Qaeda

Al-Qaeda (also al-Qaida or al-Qa'ida or al-Qa'idah) (Arabic: Modèle:Rtl-lang Modèle:ArabDIN, translation: The Base) is an international alliance of Islamic militant terrorist organizations founded in 1988<ref>Wright, Looming Tower (2006), p.133-4</ref> by Azzam (later replaced by Osama Bin Laden) and other veteran "Afghan Arabs" after the Soviet War in Afghanistan. Al-Qaeda has attacked civilian and military targets in various countries, the most notable being the September 11, 2001 attacks. These actions were followed by the U.S. government launching a military and intelligence campaign against al-Qaeda called the "War on Terror".

Al-Qaeda's objectives include the end of foreign influence in Muslim countries and the creation of a new Islamic caliphate.

Al-Qaeda has been labeled a terrorist organization by the United Nations Security Council,<ref name=UNSC-WORK-RELATED-TO-RESOLUTION-1267> Security Council Resolutions Related to the Work of the Committee Established Pursuant to Resolution 1267 (1999) Concerning Al-Qaida and the Taliban and Associated Individuals and Entities 

. United Nations Security Council

. Retrieved on 2007-01-09. </ref> the North Atlantic Treaty Organization Secretary General,<ref name="NATOQaeda"> NATO 




.    Press Conference with NATO Secretary General, Lord Robertson

. Retrieved on 2006-10-23. </ref><ref> NATO Library 



     (2005)
   
.    AL QAEDA

. Retrieved on 2007-06-11. </ref> the Commission of the European Communities of the European Union,<ref name="EU"> Commission of the European Communities 



     (20.10.2004)
   
.    COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT

. Retrieved on 2007-06-11. </ref> the United States Department of State,<ref name="US"> United States Department of State 




.    Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs)

. Retrieved on 2006-07-03. </ref> the Australian Government,<ref name="Australia"> Australian Government 




.    Listing of Terrorist Organisations

. Retrieved on 2006-07-03. </ref> Public Safety Canada,<ref name="Canada"> Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada 




.    Entities list

. Retrieved on 2006-07-03. </ref> the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs,<ref name="Israel"> Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs 



     (21 March 2006)
   
.    March 2006.htm Summary of indictments against Al-Qaeda terrorists in Samaria

. Retrieved on 2007-06-10. </ref> Japan's Diplomatic Bluebook,<ref name="Japan"> Diplomatic Bluebook 



     (2002)
   
.    B. TERRORIST ATTACKS IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE FIGHT AGAINST TERRORISM

. Retrieved on 2007-06-11. </ref> South Korean Foreign Ministry,<ref name="Korea"> Korean Foreign Ministry 


  . 
 "
   Seoul confirms release of two Korean hostages in Afghanistan 
     
 " , August 14, 2007
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-09-16
 . </ref> the Dutch Military Intelligence and Security Service,<ref name="Netherlands">   General Intelligence and Security Service
   
 




.    Annual Report 2004

. Retrieved on 2007-06-11. </ref> the United Kingdom Home Office,<ref name="UK"> United Kingdom Home Office 




.    Proscribed terrorist groups

. Retrieved on 2006-07-03. </ref> Russia,<ref name="Russia">" 

   Russia Outlaws 17 Terror Groups; Hamas, Hezbollah Not Included 
     
 "
 . </ref> the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs,<ref>   Ministry for Foreign Affairs Sweden
   
 


     (March–June 2006)
   
.    Radical Islamist Movements in the Middle East

. Retrieved on 2007-06-11. </ref> and the Swiss Government.<ref> Report on counter-terrorism submitted by Switzerland to the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1373 (2001) 

 (20 December 2001)

. Retrieved on 2007-06-11. </ref>

Characteristic terror techniques include use of suicide attacks and simultaneous bombings of different targets.<ref>Wright, Looming Tower, (2006), p.185, 270-1, 107-8</ref> Activities ascribed to it may involve members of the organization, who have taken a pledge of loyalty to bin Laden, or the much more numerous "al-Qaeda-linked" individuals who have undergone training in one of its camps in Afghanistan or Sudan but not taken any pledge.<ref>Wright, Looming Tower, (2006), p.270</ref> Following 9/11 and the launching of the War on Terrorism, it is thought al-Qaeda's leadership has "become geographically isolated", leading to the "emergence of decentralized leadership" of regional groups using the al-Qaeda "brand name."<Ref>Evolution of the al-Qaeda brand name</ref><ref>The Moral Logic and Growth of Suicide Terrorism</ref>

Due to its secrecy and structure of semi-autonomous cells, al-Qaeda's size and degree of responsibility for particular attacks are difficult to establish.

Sommaire

[modifier]

The name al-Qaeda

In Arabic, al-Qaeda (القاعدة al-qā'ida) has four syllables, and is Modèle:Pronounced. However, since two of the Arabic consonants in the name (the voiceless uvular plosive Modèle:IPA and the voiced pharyngeal fricative Modèle:IPA) are not phones found in the English language, the closest naturalized English pronunciation is Modèle:IPAEng. More commonly, Modèle:IPA and Modèle:IPA are heard. Al-Qaeda's name can also be transliterated as al-Qaida, al-Qa'ida, el-Qaida, or al Qaeda.<ref>Listen to the US pronunciation (RealPlayer).</ref>

The name of the organization comes from the Arabic noun qā'idah, which means "foundation, basis" and can also refer to a military "base". The initial al- is the Arabic definite article "the", hence "the base".

Osama bin Laden explained the origin of the term in a videotaped interview with al Jazeera journalist Tayseer Alouni in October 2001:

The name 'al-Qaeda' was established a long time ago by mere chance. The late Abu Ebeida El-Banashiri established the training camps for our mujahedeen against Russia's terrorism. We used to call the training camp al-Qaeda. The name stayed.<ref> Transcript of Bin Laden's October interview . CNN (2002-02-05) . Retrieved on 2006-10-22. </ref>
[modifier]

Claims of an American invention

What exactly al-Qaeda is, or was, remains in dispute. In the BBC documentary The Power of Nightmares, writer and journalist Adam Curtis contends that the idea of al-Qaeda as a formal organization is primarily an American invention. Curtis contends the name "al-Qaeda" was first brought to the attention of the public in the 2001 trial of Osama bin Laden and the four men accused of the 1998 United States embassy bombings in East Africa. As a matter of law, the U.S. Department of Justice needed to show that Osama bin Laden was the leader of a criminal organization in order to charge him in absentia under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, also known as the RICO statutes. The name of the organization and details of its structure were provided in the testimony of Jamal al-Fadl, who claimed to be a founding member of the organization and a former employee of Osama bin Laden.<ref>"WMD Terrorism and Usama bin Laden" by The Center for Nonproliferation Studies</ref> To quote the documentary directly:

The reality was that bin Laden and Ayman Zawahiri had become the focus of a loose association of disillusioned Islamist militants who were attracted by the new strategy. But there was no organization. These were militants who mostly planned their own operations and looked to bin Laden for funding and assistance. He was not their commander. There is also no evidence that bin Laden used the term "al-Qaeda" to refer to the name of a group until after September the 11th, when he realized that this was the term the Americans had given it.<ref>Relevant excerpt from the series, The Power of Nightmares</ref>

Questions about the reliability of al-Fadl's testimony have been raised by a number of sources because of his history of dishonesty and because he was delivering it as part of a plea bargain agreement after being convicted of conspiring to attack U.S. military establishments.<ref> Witness: Bin Laden planned attack on U.S. embassy in Saudi Arabia 

. CNN 
 
 (2001-02-13)

. Retrieved on 2007-06-12. </ref><ref> A Traitor's Tale By Johanna McGeary 

. Time 
 
 (2001-02-19)

. Retrieved on 2007-06-12. </ref> Sam Schmidt, a defense lawyer from the trial, had the following to say about al-Fadl's testimony:

There were selective portions of al-Fadl's testimony that I believe was false, to help support the picture that he helped the Americans join together. I think he lied in a number of specific testimony about a unified image of what this organization was. It made al-Qaeda the new Mafia or the new Communists. It made them identifiable as a group and therefore made it easier to prosecute any person associated with al-Qaeda for any acts or statements made by bin Laden.<ref>The Power of Nightmares. BBC documentary by Adam Curtis.</ref>
[modifier]

Claims to be an actual name

The name appears with the spelling "al-Qaida" in an executive order issued by President Bill Clinton in 1998, less than two weeks after the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. Executive Order 13099, issued on August 20, 1998, lists the organization as one of several associated with Osama bin Laden, the others being the Islamic Army, Islamic Salvation Foundation, the Islamic Army for the Liberation of the Holy Places, The World Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders, and The Group for the Preservation of the Holy Sites.<ref>"Executive Order 13099 of August 20, 1998 Prohibiting transactions with terrorists who threaten to disrupt the Middle East peace process (.pdf)" Retrieved 15 February 2007.</ref> The name "al-Qaida" could have been introduced to U.S. intelligence by Jamal al-Fadl, who had been providing the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with intelligence about bin Laden since 1996, before ultimately appearing as a witness in the February 2001 trial of those accused of the 1998 United States embassy bombings.

In this trial, Jamal al-Fadl testified<ref>"Transcripts of the testimony of prosecution witness Jamal Ahmad Al-Fadl delivered on the 6th, 7th and 13th February, 2001 at the United States District Court, Southern District of New York, in the trial of United States v. Usama bin Laden et al., defendants." Retrieved 20 May, 2007.</ref> that al-Qaeda was established in either late 1989 or early 1990 to continue the jihad after the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan. He claimed that during the war against the Soviets, bin Laden had been funding a group called Maktab al-Khadamat, which was led by Abdallah Azzam. This organization was based in Pakistan and provided training, money and other support for Muslims who would cross the border into Afghanistan to fight. According to al-Fadl, the Maktab al-Khadamat was disbanded following the Soviet withdrawal, but bin Laden wanted to establish a new group to continue the jihadist cause on other fronts. Al-Fadl testified that al-Qaeda's leader was initially Abu Ayoub al-Iraqi, who was later replaced by Abu Ubaidah al-Banshiri, but that both of these leaders nevertheless "reported to" bin-Laden. Al-Fadl claims the group initially went by two different names "al-Qaeda" and "Islamic Army", before eventually settling on the former. A meeting was apparently held in Khost, Afghanistan to establish the new group, which al-Fadl claims to have attended. Al-Fadl's recollection was that this occurred in either late 1989 or early 1990.

Others such as CNN journalist Peter Bergen and author Lawrence Wright dispute Burke's contention. Bergen argues that two documents seized from the Sarajevo office of the Illinois-based Benevolence International Foundation show that the organization was established in August, 1988. Both of these documents contain minutes of meetings held to establish a new military group and contain the term "al-qaeda". <ref> Excerpt: The Osama bin Laden I know by Peter Bergen 

. New York: Free Press 
 
 (2006)

. Retrieved on 2007-06-12. </ref>

Author Lawrence Wright also quotes this document (an exhibit from the "Tareek Osama" document presented in United States v. Enaam M. Arnaout<ref>United States v. Enaam M. Arnaout</ref>), in his book The Looming Tower. Notes of a meeting of bin Laden and others on August 20, 1988 indicate "the military base" ("al-qaeda al-askariya"), was a formal group: `basically an organized Islamic faction, its goal is to lift the word of God, to make His religion victorious.` A list of requirements for membership itemized "listening and obedient ... good manners" and making a pledge (bayat) to obey superiors. <ref>Wright, Looming Tower (2006), p.133-4</ref> According to Wright, "[t]he name al-Qaeda was not used," in public pronouncements like the 1998 fatwa to kill Americans and their allies<ref>1998 Fatwa</ref> because "its existence was still a closely held secret."<ref>Wright, Looming Tower, (2006), p.260</ref>

[modifier]

Merger with EIJ

In April 2002, the group assumed the name Qa'idat al-Jihad, which means "the base of Jihad". According to Diaa Rashwan, this was "...apparently as a result of the merger of the overseas branch of Egypt's al-Jihad (EIJ) group, led by Ayman El-Zawahiri, with the groups Bin Laden brought under his control after his return to Afghanistan in the mid-1990s."<ref>"After Mombassa", Al-Ahram Weekly Online, 2–8 January 2003 (Issue No. 619). Retrieved 3 September 2006.</ref>

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History

[modifier]

Background

[modifier]

Qutbism

Main article: Qutbism

The radical Islamist movement in general and al-Qaeda in particular developed during the Islamic revival and Islamist movement of the last three decades of the 20th century along with less extreme movements.

Some have argued that "without the writings" of Islamic author and thinker Sayyid Qutb "al-Qaeda would not have existed."<ref>Wright, Looming Tower (2006), p.332</ref> Qutb preached that because of the lack of sharia law the Muslim world was no longer Muslim, having reverted to pre-Islamic ignorance known as jahiliyyah. To restore Islam, a vanguard movement of righteous Muslims was needed to implement Sharia and rid the Muslim world of any non-Muslim influences, such as concepts like socialism or nationalism. Enemies of Islam included "treacherous Orientalists!" <ref>Qutb, Milestones, (2003) p.63 p.69</ref> and "world Jewry", who plotted "conspiracies" and "wicked[ly]" opposed Islam.

In the words of Mohammed Jamal Khalia, a close college friend of Osama bin Laden: Islam is different from any other religion; it's a way of life. We [Khalia and bin Laden] were trying to understand what Islam has to say about how we eat, who we marry, how we talk. We read Sayyid Qutb. He was the one who most affected our generation.<ref>Wright, Looming Towers, (2006), p.79</ref>

Qutb had an even greater influence on Osama bin Laden's mentor and another leading member of al-Qaeda,<ref>How Did Sayyid Qutb Influence Osama bin Laden?</ref> Ayman al-Zawahiri. Zawahiri's uncle and maternal family patriarch, Mafouz Azzam, was Qutb's student, then protégé, then personal lawyer and finally executor of his estate - one of the last people to see Qutb before his execution. "Young Ayman al-Zawahiri heard again and again from his beloved uncle Mahfouz about the purity of Qutb's character and the torment he had endured in prison."<ref>Lawrence Wright, who interviewed Azzam. Wright, Looming Tower, 2006, p.36</ref> Zawahiri paid homage to Qutb in his work Knights under the Prophet's Banner. <ref>Sayyid Qutb's Milestones (footnote 24)</ref>

One of the most powerful effects of Qutb's ideas was the idea that many who said they were Muslims were not, i.e. they were apostates. These included leaders of Muslims countries since they failed to enforce sharia law.<ref>http://www.carlisle.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/07spring/eikmeier.htm Qutbism: An Ideology of Islamic-Fascism DALE C. EIKMEIER From Parameters, Spring 2007, pp. 85-98.</ref>

[modifier]

Jihad in Afghanistan

Main articles: Soviet war in Afghanistan and Afghan Arabs

The origins of the group can be traced to the Soviet war in Afghanistan. The United States viewed the conflict in Afghanistan, with the Afghan Marxists and allied Soviet troops on one side and the native Afghan mujahedeen on the other, as a blatant case of Soviet expansionism and aggression. The U.S. channelled funds through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence agency to the native Afghan mujahedeen fighting the Soviet occupation in a CIA program called Operation Cyclone.<ref name=HOW-THE-CIA-CREATED-OSAMA-BIN-LADEN>" 

   How the CIA created Osama bin Laden 
     
 " , Green Left Weekly
  , 2001-09-19
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-01-09
 . </ref><ref name=1986-1992-CIA-AND-BRITISH-RECRUIT-AND-TRAIN-MILITANTS-WORLDWIDE-TO-HELP-FIGHT-AFGHAN-WAR>   1986-1992: CIA and British Recruit and Train Militants Worldwide to Help Fight Afghan War 
. Cooperative Research History Commons

. Retrieved on 2007-01-09. </ref>

At the same time, a growing number of foreign Arab mujahedeen (also called Afghan Arabs) joined the jihad against the Afghan Marxist regime, facilitated by international Muslim organizations, particularly the Maktab al-Khidamat,<ref name=MAKTAB-AL-KHIDAMAT-GLOBALSECURITY> Maktab al-Khidamat 

. GlobalSecurity.org 
 
 (2006-01-11)

. Retrieved on 2007-02-11. </ref> whose funds came from some of the $600 million a year donated to the jihad by the Saudi Arabia government and individual Muslims - particularly wealthy Saudis who were approached by Osama bin Laden.<ref>Wright, Looming Tower, (2006)</ref>

The Afghan Mujahedeen of the 1980s have been alleged to be the inspiration for terrorist groups in nations such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Chechnya, and the former Yugoslavia.<ref>Demokratizatsiya, Spring 2003, re-published at Find Articles, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3996/is_200304/ai_n9199132</ref> According to Russian sources, the perpetrators of the first World Trade Center bombing in 1993 allegedly used a manual allegedly written by the CIA for the Mujihadeen fighters in Afghanistan on how to make explosives.<ref>Demokratizatsiya, Spring 2003, re-published at Find Articles, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3996/is_200304/ai_n9199132/pg_6; "Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism," by ABC News correspondent John K. Cooley</ref>

[modifier]

Alleged CIA involvement

Main article: Allegations of CIA assistance to Osama bin Laden

Whether the al-Qaeda attacks are "blowback" from the American CIA's Operation Cyclone to help the Afghan mujahideen is a matter of some debate. Robin Cook, former member of the British House of Commons and Foreign Secretary from 1997-2001, has written that al-Qaeda and Bin Laden were, "a product of a monumental miscalculation by western security agencies" and that the mujahideen that formed al-Qaeda were "originally ... recruited and trained with help from the CIA".<ref> Cook, Robin 




.    The struggle against terrorism cannot be won by military means 
. Guardian Unlimited

. Retrieved on 2005-07-08. </ref></blockquote>

However, CNN journalist Peter Bergen, known for conducting the first television interview with Osama bin Laden in 1997, calls the idea "that the CIA funded bin Laden or trained bin Laden ... a folk myth. There's no evidence of this. ... Bin Laden had his own money, he was anti-American and he was operating secretly and independently. ... The real story here is the CIA didn't really have a clue about who this guy was until 1996 when they set up a unit to really start tracking him."<ref> Bergen, Peter 




.    Bergen: Bin Laden, CIA links hogwash 
. CNN

. Retrieved on 2006-08-15. </ref> Bergen and others maintain the U.S. aid was given out by the Pakistan government, that it went to Afghan not foreign mujahideen, and that there was no contact between the Afghan Arabs (foreign mujahideen) and the CIA or other American officials, let alone, arming, training, coaching or indoctrination.

[modifier]

Origins in Maktab al-Khadamat (MAK)

Al-Qaeda evolved from the Maktab al-Khadamat (Services Office), a Muslim organization founded in 1980 to raise and channel funds and recruit foreign mujahadeen for the war against the Soviets in Afghanistan. It was founded by Abdullah Yusuf Azzam, a Palestinian Islamic scholar and member of the Muslim Brotherhood. Maktab al-Khadamat organized guest houses in Peshawar, in Pakistan, near the Afghan border, and paramilitary training camps in Afghanistan to prepare international non-Afghan recruits for the Afghan war front. Azzam persuaded Bin Laden to join MAK, to use his own money and use his connections with "the Saudi royal family and the petro-billionaires of the Gulf" to raise more to help the mujahideen.<ref>Wright, Looming Tower, (2006), p.103</ref> The role played by MAK and foreign Muslim volunteers, or "Afghan Arabs", in the war was not a major one. While 250,000 Afghan Mujahideen fought the Soviets and Marxist Afghan government, it is estimated that were never more than 2000 foreign mujahideen in the field at any one time.<ref>Wright, Looming Tower (2006), p.137</ref> Nonetheless, foreign mujahedeen volunteers came from 43 countries and the number that participated in the Afghan movement between 1982 and 1992 is reported to have been 35,000.<ref name=THE-WAR-ON-TERROR-AND-THE-POLITICS-OF-VIOLENCE-IN-PAKISTAN> The War on Terror and the Politics of Violence in Pakistan 

. The Jamestown Foundation 
 
 (2004-07-02)

. Retrieved on 2007-01-09. </ref>

The Soviet Union finally withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989. To the surprise of many, Mohammed Najibullah's Marxist Afghan government hung on for three more years before being overrun by elements of the mujahedeen. With mujahedeen leaders unable to agree on a structure for governance, chaos ensued, with constantly reorganizing alliances fighting for control of ill-defined territories, leaving the country devastated.

The CIA was watching Osama bin Laden at least as early as 1995, due to the discovery of the Oplan Bojinka plot, which in part involved a suicide airplane attack on CIA Headquarters.[citation needed]

[modifier]

Expanding operations

Toward the end of the Soviet military mission in Afghanistan, some mujahedeen wanted to expand their operations to include Islamist struggles in other parts of the world, such as Israel and Kashmir. A number of overlapping and interrelated organizations were formed to further those aspirations.

One of these was the organization that would eventually be called al-Qaeda, formed by Osama bin Laden with an initial meeting held on August 11, 1988.<ref name=THE-OSAMA-BIN-LADEN-I-KNOW> The Osama bin Laden I know 

 (2006-01-18)

. Retrieved on 2007-01-09. </ref> Bin Laden wished to establish nonmilitary operations in other parts of the world; Azzam, in contrast, wanted to remain focused on military campaigns. After Azzam was assassinated in 1989, the MAK split, with a significant number joining bin Laden's organization.

In November 1989, Ali Mohamed, a former special forces Sergeant stationed at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, left military service and moved to Santa Clara, California. He traveled to Afghanistan and Pakistan and became deeply involved with bin Laden's plans."<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>. A year later, on November 8, 1990, the FBI raided the New Jersey home of Mohammed's associate El Sayyid Nosair, discovering a great deal of evidence of terrorist plots, including plans to blow up New York City skyscrapers.<ref>http://www.tkb.org/CaseHome.jsp?caseid=332</ref> Nosair was eventually convicted in connection to the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, and for the murder of Rabbi Meir Kahane on November 5, 1990. In 1991, Ali Mohammed is said to have helped orchestrate Osama bin Laden's relocation to Sudan.<ref name=> Osama bin Laden: The Past


. Retrieved on 2007-01-12. </ref>

[modifier]

Gulf War and the start of U.S. enmity

Main article: Gulf War

Following the Soviet Union's withdrawal from Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden returned to Saudi Arabia. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 had put the country of Saudi Arabia and its ruling House of Saud at risk as Saudi's most valuable oil fields (Hama) were within easy striking distance of Iraqi forces in Kuwait,<ref>See Wikipedia article on the Gulf War for more.</ref> and Saddam's call to pan-Arab/Islamism could potentially rally internal dissent. In the face of a seemingly massive Iraqi military presence, Saudi Arabia's own forces were well armed but far outnumbered. Bin Laden offered the services of his mujahedeen to King Fahd to protect Saudi Arabia from the Iraqi army. The Saudi monarch refused bin Laden's offer, opting instead to allow U.S. and allied forces to deploy on Saudi territory<ref>Douglas Jehl, "Holy War lured Saudis as Rulers Looked Away", New York Times December 27, 2001 [1]</ref>.

The deployment angered Bin Laden, as he believed the presence of foreign troops in the "land of the two mosques" (Mecca and Medina) profaned sacred soil. After speaking publicly against the Saudi government for harboring American troops, he was quickly forced into exile to Sudan and on April 9, 1994 his Saudi citizenship was revoked.<ref name=OSAMA-BIN-LADEN-A-CHRONOLOGY-OF-HIS-POLITICAL-LIFE> Osama bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life 

. PBS

. Retrieved on 2007-01-12. </ref> His family publicly disowned him. There is controversy over whether and to what extent he continued to garner support from members of his family and/or the Saudi government.<ref name=CONTEXT-OF-SHORTLLY-AFTER-APRIL-1994> Context of 'Shortly After April 1994' 

. Cooperative Research History Commons

. Retrieved on 2007-01-12. </ref>

[modifier]

Sudan

From approximately 1992 to 1996, al-Qaeda and bin Laden were located in Sudan, coming at the invitation of Islamist theoritician Hassan al Turabi following an Islamist coup d'etat, and leaving after being expelled by the Sudanese government. During this time bin Laden assisted the Sudanese government, bought or set up various business enterprises, and established training camps where insurgents trained. But in Sudan bin Laden lost his Saudi passport and source of income in response to his verbal attacks on the Saudi king. <ref>Wright, Looming Towers (2006), p.195</ref>

Zawahiri and the EIJ, who served as the core of al-Qaeda but also engaged in separate operations against the Egyptian government, had even worse luck in Sudan. In 1993, a young schoolgirl was killed in an unsuccessful EIJ attempt on the life of the Egyptian Interior Minister, Hasan al-Alfi. Egyptian public opinion turned against Islamist bombings and <ref>Wright, 2006, p.186</ref> the police arrested 280 more of al-Jihad's members and executed six. In 1995 an even more ill-fated attempt to assassinate Egyptian president Mubarak led to the expulsion of EIJ and not long after of bin Laden by the Sudanese government.

[modifier]

Refuge in Afghanistan

Main article: Taliban

After the Soviet withdrawal, Afghanistan was effectively ungoverned for seven years and plagued by constant infighting between former allies and various mujahedeen groups.

Throughout the 1990s, a new force began to emerge. The origins of the Taliban (literally "students") lay in the children of Afghanistan, many of them orphaned by the war, and many of whom had been educated in the rapidly expanding network of Islamic schools (madrassas) either in Kandahar or in the refugee camps on the Afghan-Pakistani border.

According to Ahmed Rashid, five leaders of the Taliban were graduates of a single madrassa, Darul Uloom Haqqania (also known as “the University of Jihad",)<ref>http://www.husainhaqqani.com/reforming/journal%20articles/1/1.htm</ref> in the small town of Akora Khattak near Peshawar, situated in Pakistan but largely attended by Afghan refugees.<ref>«  »</ref> This institution reflected Salafi beliefs in its teachings, and much of its funding came from private donations from wealthy Arabs, for whom bin Laden provided conduit. A further four leading figures (including the perceived Taliban leader Mullah Mohammed Omar Mujahed) attended a similarly funded and influenced madrassa in Kandahar, Afghanistan.

Many of the mujahedeen who later joined the Taliban fought alongside Afghan warlord Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi's Harkat i Inqilabi group at the time of the Russian invasion. This group also enjoyed the loyalty of most Afghan Arab fighters.

The continuing internecine strife between various factions, and accompanying lawlessness following the Soviet withdrawal, enabled the growing and well-disciplined Taliban to expand their control over territory in Afghanistan, and they came to establish an enclave which it called the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. In 1994, they captured the regional center of Kandahar, and after making rapid territorial gains thereafter, conquered the capital city Kabul in September 1996.

After Sudan made it clear that bin Laden and his group were no longer welcome that year, Taliban-controlled Afghanistan — with previously established connections between the groups, a similar outlook on world affairs and largely isolated from American political influence and military power — provided a perfect location for al-Qaeda to establish its headquarters. Al-Qaeda enjoyed the Taliban's protection and a measure of legitimacy as part of their Ministry of Defense, although only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates recognized the Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan.

Al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan and the Pakistani border regions are alleged to have trained militant Muslims from around the world.[citation needed] Despite the perception of some people, al-Qaeda members are ethnically diverse and connected by their radical version of Islam.

An ever-expanding network of supporters thus enjoyed a safe haven in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan until the Taliban were defeated by a combination of local forces and United States air power in 2001 (see section September 11, attacks and the United States response). Osama bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders are still believed to be located in areas where the population is sympathetic to the Taliban in Afghanistan or the border Tribal Areas of Pakistan.

[modifier]

Militant operations pre-dating the September 11, 2001 attacks

[modifier]

The first terrorist attack

On December 29, 1992, al-Qaeda's first terrorist attack took place as two bombs were detonated in Aden, Yemen. The first target was the Movenpick Hotel and the second was the parking lot of the Goldmohur Hotel. The bombings were an attempt to eliminate American soldiers on their way to Somalia to take part in the international famine relief effort, Operation Restore Hope. Internally, al-Qaeda considered the bombing a victory that frightened the Americans away, but in the United States the attack was barely noticed. No Americans were killed because the soldiers were staying in a different hotel altogether, and they went on to Somalia as scheduled. However, little noticed, the attack was pivotal as it was the beginning of al-Qaeda's change in direction, from fighting armies to killing civilians.<ref>Wright, Looming Tower, (2006), p.174</ref> Two people were killed in the bombing, an Australian tourist and a Yemeni hotel worker. Seven other mostly Yemenis, were severely injured.

Two fatwa are said to have been appointed by the most theologically knowledgable of al-Qaeda's members, Mamdouh Mahmud Salim, aka Abu Hajer al Iraqi, to justify the killings according to Islamic law. Mamdouh Mahmud Salim referred to the thirteenth-century scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, much admired by Wahhabis. In a famous fatwa, Ibn Tamiyyah had ruled that Muslims should kill the invading Mongols, and so too Salim said al-Qaeda should kill American soldiers. The second fatwa followed another of Ibn Tamiyyah's, that Muslims should not only kill Mongols but anyone who aided the Mongols, who bought goods from them or sold to them. In addition the killing of someone merely standing near a Mongol was justified as well. He ruled these killings just because any innocent bystander, like the Yemenite hotel worker, would find their proper reward in death, going to Paradise if they were good Muslims and to hell if they were bad.<ref>testimony of Jamal al-Fadl, U.S. v. Usama bin Laden, et.al.</ref> This became al-Qaeda's justification for killing civilians.<ref>Wright, Looming Tower, (2006), p.174</ref>

[modifier]

First World Trade Center bombing

Main article: World Trade Center bombing

In 1993, Ramzi Yousef used a truck bomb to attack the World Trade Center in New York City. The attack was intended to break the foundation of Tower One knocking it into Tower Two, bringing the entire complex down. Yousef hoped this would kill 250,000 people. The towers shook and swayed but the foundation held and he succeeded in killing only six people (although he injured 1,042 others and caused nearly $300 million in property damage).<ref>Wright, Looming Tower, (2006), p.178</ref><ref>Reeve, Simon. The new jackals: Ramzi Yousef, Osama Bin Laden and the future of terrorism, Boston: Northeastern University Press, c1999</ref><ref name=> February 1993 Bombing of the World Trade Center in New York City 

. Center for Nonproliferation Studies 
 
 (2001-11-12)

. Retrieved on 2007-01-09. </ref>

After the attack, Yousef fled to Pakistan and later moved to Manila. There he began developing the Bojinka Plot plans to blow up a dozen American airliners simultaneously, to assassinate Pope John Paul II and President Bill Clinton, and to crash a private plane into CIA headquarters. He was later captured in Pakistan.<ref>Wright, Looming Tower, (2006), p.178</ref><ref>Reeve, Simon. The new jackals: Ramzi Yousef, Osama Bin Laden and the future of terrorism, Boston: Northeastern University Press, c1999</ref>

None of the U.S. government's indictments against Osama bin Laden have suggested that he had any connection with this bombing, but Ramzi Yousef is known to have attended a terrorist training camp in Afghanistan. After his capture, Yousef declared that his primary justification for the attack was to punish the United States for its support for the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories and made no mention of any religious motivations.<ref name=> February 1993 Bombing of the World Trade Center in New York City 

. Center for Nonproliferation Studies 
 
 (2001-11-12)

. Retrieved on 2007-01-09. </ref>

[modifier]

1995-2000 fatwa declarations and bomb attacks

Main articles: 1998 United States embassy bombings and USS Cole bombing

On November 13 1995 a van containing a hundred pounds of Semtex explosive blew up near the communications center for the Saudi National Guard in downtown Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, where some American military contractors and Army officers had been training the Saudi National Guard. Seven people were killed, and sixty people were injured. The Saudi government arrested four men, "torturing confessions" out of them that they had been inspired by bin Laden's speeches and trained at al-Qaeda's camp in Afghanistan, and quickly executed them. It is unclear if they had anything to do with the crime. As with many bombings suspected to be the work of al-Qaeda, bin Laden praised the attacks but denied authorizing the attack or training the bombers.<ref>Wright, Looming Towers, (2006), p.211-2</ref>

In 1996, al-Qaeda announced its jihad to expel foreign troops and interests from what they felt were Islamic lands. Bin Laden issued a fatwa,<ref name=>" 

   Bin Laden's Fatwa 
     
 " , Al Quds Al Arabi
  , August 1996
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-01-09
 . </ref> which amounted to a public declaration of war against the United States and any of its allies, and began to focus al-Qaeda's resources towards attacking the United States and its interests. Also occuring on June 25th, 1996 was the bombing of the Khobar towers, located in Khobar, Saudi Arabia.

On February 23, 1998, Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri, a leader of Egyptian Islamic Jihad, along with three other Islamist leaders, co-signed and issued a fatwa (binding religious edict) under the banner of the World Islamic Front for Combat Against the Jews and Crusaders (al-Jabhah al-Islamiyya al-'Alamiyya li-Qital al-Yahud wal-Salibiyyin) declaring:

[T]he ruling to kill the Americans and their allies - civilians and military — is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque (in Jerusalem) and the holy mosque (in Makka) from their grip, and in order for their armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim. This is in accordance with the words of Almighty Allah, 'and fight the pagans all together as they fight you all together,' and 'fight them until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in Allah'.<ref> Text of Fatwah Urging Jihad Against Americans . Retrieved on 2006-05-15. </ref>

Neither bin Laden nor al-Zawahiri possessed the traditional Islamic scholarly qualifications to issue a fatwa of any kind; however, they rejected the authority of the contemporary ulema (seen as the paid servants of jahiliyya rulers) and took it upon themselves.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref> 1998 was also the year of the first major terrorist attack reliably attributed to al-Qaeda- the U.S. embassy bombings in East Africa, resulting in upward of 300 deaths, mostly locals. A barrage of cruise missiles launched by the U.S. military in response devastated an al-Qaeda base in Khost, Afghanistan, but the network's capacity was unharmed.

Bin Laden then turned his sights towards the United States Navy. In October 2000, al-Qaeda militants in Yemen bombed the missile destroyer U.S.S. Cole in a suicide attack, killing 17 U.S. servicemen and damaging the vessel while it lay offshore. Inspired by the success of such a brazen attack, al-Qaeda's command core began to prepare for an attack on the United States itself.

[modifier]

September 11, 2001, attacks and the United States response

Main articles: September 11, 2001 attacks and War on Terrorism

Modèle:Seealso

The attacks were the most devastating terrorist acts in American history, killing nearly 3,000 people, destroying four commercial airliners, leveling the World Trade Center towers, and damaging The Pentagon, the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense.

The September 11, 2001, attacks were conducted by al-Qaeda, acting in accord with the 1998 fatwa issued against the United States and its allies by military forces under the command of bin Laden, al-Zawahiri, and others.<ref>Modèle:Citeweb</ref> Evidence points to suicide squads led by al-Qaeda military commander Mohammed Atta as the culprits of the attacks, with bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, and Hambali as the key planners and part of the political and military command. Messages issued by bin Laden after September 11,2001 praised the attacks, and explained their motivation while denying any involvement.<ref> Bin Laden says he wasn't behind attacks 

. CNN 
 
   (September 17, 2001)

. Retrieved on 2006-07-06. </ref> Bin Laden legitimized the attacks by identifying grievances felt by both mainstream and Islamist Muslims, such as the general perception that the United States was actively oppressing Muslims.<ref>J. Esposito 'Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam' 2002. New York, Oxford University Press. p22 </ref> Bin Laden asserted that America was massacring Muslims in 'Palestine, Chechnya, Kashmir and Iraq' and that Muslims should retain the 'right to attack in reprisal'. He also claimed the 9/11 attacks were not targeted at women and children, but 'America's icons of military and economic power'.<ref>Hamid Miir 'Osama claims he has nukes: If U.S. uses N-arms it will get the same response' "Dawn: the Internet Edition" November 10, 2001 </ref>

Evidence has since come to light that the original targets for the attack may have been nuclear power stations on the east coast of the U.S. The targets were later altered by al-Qaeda, as it was thought that the US retaliation would be too great.<ref name=AL-QAIDA-LEADERS-SAY-NUCLEAR-POWER-STATIONS-WERE-ORIGINAL-TARGETS>" 

   Al-Qaida leaders say nuclear power stations were original targets 
     
 " , The Guardian
  , 2002-09-09
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-01-11
 . </ref><ref name=Al-Qaeda-SCALED-BACK-10-PLANE-PLOT>"
   Al Qaeda Scaled Back 10-Plane Plot 
     
 " , Washington Post
  , 2004-06-17
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-01-11
 . </ref>

In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, the United States government decided to respond militarily, and began to prepare its armed forces to overthrow the Taliban regime it believed was harboring al-Qaeda. Before the United States attacked, it offered Taliban leader Mullah Omar a chance to surrender bin Laden and his top associates. The Taliban offered to turn over bin Laden to a neutral country for trial if the United States would provide evidence of bin Laden's complicity in the attacks. U.S. President George W. Bush responded by saying: "We know he's guilty. Turn him over",<ref> U.S. Jets Pound Targets Around Kabul 

. The Portsmouth Herald
   (October 15,2001)

. Retrieved on 2006-07-06. </ref> and British Prime Minister Tony Blair warned the Taliban regime: "Surrender bin Laden, or surrender power". Soon thereafter the United States and its allies invaded Afghanistan, and together with the Afghan Northern Alliance removed the Taliban government in the war in Afghanistan.

Image:Anaconda-helicopter.jpg
U.S. troops in Afghanistan

As a result of the United States using its special forces and providing air support for the Northern Alliance ground forces, both Taliban and al-Qaeda training camps were destroyed, and much of the operating structure of al-Qaeda is believed to have been disrupted. After being driven from their key positions in the Tora Bora area of Afghanistan, many al-Qaeda fighters tried to regroup in the rugged Gardez region of the nation. Again, under the cover of intense aerial bombardment, U.S. infantry and local Afghan forces attacked, shattering the al-Qaeda position and killing or capturing many of the militants. By early 2002, al-Qaeda had been dealt a serious blow to its operational capacity, and the Afghan invasion appeared an initial success. Nevertheless, a significant Taliban insurgency remains in Afghanistan, and al-Qaeda's top two leaders, bin Laden and al-Zawahiri, evaded capture.

Debate raged about the exact nature of al-Qaeda's role in the 9/11 attacks, and after the U.S. invasion began, the U.S. State Department also released a videotape showing bin Laden speaking with a small group of associates somewhere in Afghanistan shortly before the Taliban was removed from power.<ref> U.S. RELEASES VIDEOTAPE OF OSAMA BIN LADEN 

   (December 13, 2001)

. Retrieved on 2006-07-04. </ref> Although its authenticity has been questioned by some,<ref> Morris, Steven 



       (December 15, 2001)
     
   
 
.    US urged to detail origin of tape 
. The Guardian

. Retrieved on 2006-07-11. </ref> the tape appears to implicate bin Laden and al-Qaeda in the September 11 attacks and was aired on many television channels all over the world, with an accompanying English translation provided by the United States Defense Department.

In September 2004, the U.S. government commission investigating the September 11 attacks officially concluded that the attacks were conceived and implemented by al-Qaeda operatives.<ref> National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States 

   (September 20, 2004)

. Retrieved on 2006-04-27. </ref> In October 2004, bin Laden appeared to claim responsibility for the attacks in a videotape released through Al Jazeera, saying he was inspired by Israeli attacks on high-rises in the 1982 invasion of Lebanon: "As I looked at those demolished towers in Lebanon, it entered my mind that we should punish the oppressor in kind and that we should destroy towers in America in order that they taste some of what we tasted and so that they be deterred from killing our women and children."<ref> Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech 

. Al Jazeera 
 
   (November 1, 2004)

. Retrieved on 2006-07-12. </ref>

By the end of 2004, the U.S. government claimed that two-thirds of the top leaders of al-Qaeda from 2001 were in custody (including Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Abu Zubaydah, Saif al Islam el Masry, and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri) or dead (including Mohammed Atef). Despite the capture or death of many senior al-Qaeda operatives, the U.S. government continues to warn that the organization is not yet defeated, and battles between U.S. forces and al-Qaeda-related groups continue.

In the meantime, autonomous regional branches of al-Qaeda continue to emerge around the world.

[modifier]

Other regional activities

Modèle:Expand

[modifier]

Africa

[modifier]

Algeria

Main articles: Al-Qaeda Organization in the Islamic Maghreb and Islamic insurgency in Algeria (2002-present)

Modèle:Seealso

An insurgency is being waged by the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (which is called today as the al-Qaeda Organization in the Islamic Maghreb) against the Algerian government. It is a spin-off to the Algerian Civil War that ended in 2002, and has been linked to bombings in Algiers, Batna and Dellys.

The group has declared its intention to attack Algerian, French, American and Spanish targets. It has been designated as a Foreign Terrorist Organization by the U.S. Department of State, and similarly classed as a terrorist organization by the European Union.

[modifier]

Eritrea

As soon as the allied Somali and Ethiopian forces drove the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) out of Somalia in January of 2007, U.S. accused Eritrea of providing safe haven for some of their leadership.<ref>U.S. accuses Eritrea on supporting islamists</ref> America also condemned Eritrea since it continued to "fund, arm, train and advise the insurgents" attacking the Somalia government.<ref>U.S. condemns Eritrean assistance of islamists</ref><ref>US blames Eritrea over Somalian insurgency</ref> According to a regional Somali government, some Eritrean soldiers were also sited working with Arab and al-Qaeda fighters against the Somalia government, and the foreign alliance attacked government positions.<ref>allied ICU, Al-Qaeda and Eritrean fighters attack government positions</ref>

In 2007 there were reports that the Eritrean government is sheltering the leadership of the insurgency in Somalia.<ref>"The Economist" sites alliance of the islamists and Eritrea</ref> The United Nations continued to report of Eritrean assistance to Somalis with alleged links to al-Qaeda. Accordingly, the UN Security Council said that Eritrea has secretly supplied "huge quantities of arms" to a Somali insurgent group with alleged ties to al Qaeda, in violation of an international arms embargo and despite the deployment of African peacekeepers" adding that it has been "provided to the al-Shabaab (an extremist group which emerged within the ICU’s armed forces and is led by a kinsman and protégé of the ICU council leader Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys, Aden Hashi Farah "Eyrow", who trained in Afghanistan with al-Qaeda before returning to Somalia after 9/11<ref>Al Shabaab and the insurgency in Somalia</ref>) by and through Eritrea" since December 2006.<ref>the Eritrean government is giving arms to Somalis with Al Qaeda ties</ref> Sheikh Aweys himself and other members of the Islamic Courts Union who are wanted by the U.S. over suspected links to al-Qaeda (the UN has Sheikh Aweys on a list of individuals "belonging to or associated with" al Qaeda, which he denies<ref>Somali on the United Nations list of individuals "belonging to or associated with" al Qaeda</ref>) organized a congress in Eritrea to strengthen their militant opposition to the Somalia transitional government.<ref>Islamic Courts Union leaders wanted by the US over suspected links to al-Qaeda.</ref>

[modifier]

Libya

On November 3, 2007, al-Zawahiri claimed in a 28-minute recording posted on an Islamic website that "... members of the Fighting Islamic Group in Libya announce that they are joining the al-Qaeda group ..." According to al-Jazeera news service, Abu al-Laith appeared to be the leader of the new Libyan wing. Fighting Islamic Group first announced its presence in 1995, vowing to overthrow Muammar Gaddafi, the Libyan leader. In 2001, the group was added to a UN list of individuals and institutions "belonging to, or associated with, al-Qaeda".<ref>Zawahri: Libya group joins al-Qaeda accessed November 3, 2007</ref>

[modifier]

Somalia and Kenya

Main article: Somali Civil War

Modèle:Seealso

Activities of al-Qaeda in Somalia are alleged to have begun as early as 1992.<ref name=EDITORIAL-SUDAN-RE-RUN-IN-SOMALIA>" 

   EDITORIAL: Sudan re-run in Somalia 
     
 " , Daily Times
  , 2006-12-30
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-01-08
 . </ref> The organization's role during the course of the 1992–1994 UN missions was limited to a handful of trainers. Ali Mohamed and other al-Qaeda members purportedly trained forces loyal to warlord Mohammed Farah Aidid.<ref name=>   Context of 'October 3-4, 1993' 
. Cooperative Research History Commons

. Retrieved on 2007-01-08. </ref> Osama bin Laden himself claimed in an interview with ABC's John Miller to have sent al-Qaeda operatives to Somalia. One of the al-Qaeda fighters present during the interview claimed to have personally slit the throats of three American soldiers in Somalia.<ref name=GREETINGS-AMERICA-MY-NAME-IS-OSAMA-BIN-LADEN>" 

   Greetings America, My Name is Osama bin Laden 
     
 " , Esquire Magazine
  , 1999-02-01
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-01-08
 . </ref> Mark Bowden, author of Black Hawk Down, states the terrorist organization did train some of Aidid's men, but they were not personally part of the fight with US forces in the 1993 battle of Mogadishu.<ref name=THE-TRUTH-ABOUT-MOGADISHU>"
   The truth about Mogadishu 
     
 " , The Philadelphia Inquirer
  , 2006-10-08
 
 . </ref>

In 2002 an another successful terrorist attack in Kenya after the U.S. embassy bombing, a car-bomb placed in a resort hotel popular among Israeli tourists claimed the lives of 15 people. The hotel bombing occurred 20 minutes after a failed attack on an airplane, when a terrorist fired an SA-7 MANPAD against an Israeli airliner carrying 261 passengers, which was taking off from the airport; the missile seemingly failed to track its target, nor did it detonate, and landed in an empty field.

Lately, al-Qaeda was also linked to militant Islamic Courts Union (ICU) front in Somalia. It is believed several terrorist attacks were orchestrated from Ras Kamboni, in the extreme southern tip of Somalia adjacent to Kenya, including the 1998 United States embassy bombings and the 2002 Mombasa hotel bombing.<ref>Abdi Abdi, "The Talibanisation of Somalia", Ethiopian News Agency, 12 July 2006</ref> On June 22, 2006, Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs Jendayi Frazer announced the U.S. was seeking the assistance of the ICU in the apprehension of suspects who carried out attacks against its East African embassies and a hotel in Kenya.<ref name=US-SEEKS-ISLAMIC-COURTS-HELP>US Seeks Islamic Courts’ Help To Catch Somali Extremists‎ Somaliland Times</ref> She listed the following persons as suspected of being in Somalia (name and nationality): Fazul Abdullah Mohamed (Comoros), Saleh Ali Saleh Nabhan (Kenya), and Abu Taha al-Sudan (Sudan). When the ICU did not cooperate, the U.S. first financed the rival warlord factions, and then followed with limited air strikes as the ICU rule in Mogadishu fell in the face of Ethiopian Army assault. The Pentagon said a high level al-Qaeda member from the ICU was captured in Somalia and transferred to the U.S. military prison in Guantanamo Bay.<ref>Pentagon captures high level Al-Qaeda member in Somalia</ref><ref>U.S. detains Al-Qaeda member</ref>

[modifier]

Sudan

In 1991, Sudan's National Islamic Front, an Islamist group that had recently gained power, invited al-Qaeda to move operations to Sudan.<ref name=TESTIMONY-OF-JT-CARUSO> Testimony of J. T. Caruso, Acting Assistant Director, CounterTerrorism Division, FBI Before the Subcommittee on International Operations and Terrorism, Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate - December 18, 2001 - "Al-Qaeda International" 

. FBI 
 
 (2001-12-18)

. Retrieved on 2007-01-18. </ref> For several years, al-Qaeda operated several businesses (including import/export, farm, and construction firms) in what might be considered a period of financial consolidation. The group built a major 1200-km (845-mi) highway connecting the capital Khartoum with Port Sudan.<ref name=INSIDE-AL-QAEDA> Inside Al-Qaeda


. Retrieved on 2007-01-18. </ref> However, they also ran a number of camps where they trained operatives in the use of firearms and explosives.

In 1996, Osama bin Laden was asked to leave Sudan after the United States put the regime under extreme pressure to expel him, citing possible connections to the 1994 attempted assassination of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak while his motorcade was in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Controversy exists regarding whether Sudan offered to turn bin Laden over to the U.S. prior to the expulsion. There is an audio tape (Audio) (Transcript) recording of former President Bill Clinton talking about the offer from the Sudanese government. There are conflicting reports on whether the Sudanese government indeed made such an offer, but they were in fact prepared to turn him over to Saudi Arabia, who declined to take him.<ref>"Newsmax" http://www.newsmax.com/archives/ic/2006/9/10/181819.shtml?s=ic </ref> Osama bin Laden finally left Sudan in a well-executed operation, arriving at Jalalabad, Afghanistan by air in late 1996 with over 200 of his supporters and their families.

[modifier]

Europe

Main articles: 2003 Istanbul bombings, 11 March 2004 Madrid train bombings, and 7 July 2005 London bombings
[modifier]

Bosnia

Main article: The role of foreign fighters in the Bosnian war

The October 1991 secession of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia opened up a new ethno-religious conflict at the heart of Europe. After its secession, ethnic Serbs and ethnic Croats within Bosnia, supported by irredentist movements in the adjacent states of Serbia and Croatia, engaged in a three-way conflict against the Muslim Bosniak population. Radical Islamic veterans of the war against the Soviets in Afghanistan seized on Bosnia as a new opportunity to defend Islam. Besieged on two fronts and seemingly abandoned by the West, the new government of Alija Izetbegovic was willing to accept any help it could get, military or financial, including that of a number of Islamic organisations, such as al-Qaeda.<ref name="Kohlmann">Modèle:Cite book</ref> Several close associates of Osama bin Laden (most notably, Saudi Khalid bin Udah bin Muhammad al-Harbi, alias Abu Sulaiman al-Makki) joined the conflict in Bosnia.<ref name="Kohlmann" />

While al-Qaeda might initially have seen Bosnia as a possible bridgehead enabling the radicalization of European Muslims for operations against other European nations and the United States, Bosniaks had been secularized for generations, and their interest in fighting was largely limited to securing the survival of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian state. The foreign volunteers (comprising largely Arab veterans of the Afghan war and not necessarily members of al-Qaeda) thus operated as a largely autonomous force within central Bosnia. While their bravery in the fray initially attracted a large number of native Muslims to join them, their brutality against civilians<ref name=BRUTAL-CRIMES-OF-BOSNIA>" 

   'Brutal crimes' of Bosnia Muslims 
     
 " , BBC
  , 2003-12-02
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-02-02
 . </ref> came to appall many native Bosnians and repel new recruits. At the same time, their vigorous attempts to Islamicize the local Muslim population with rules on appropriate dress and behavior were widely resented and thus went unheeded. In his book Al-Qaida’s Jihad in Europe: the Afghan-Bosnian Network, Evan Kohlmann summarizes:
In spite of vigorous efforts to 'Islamicise' the nominally Muslim populace of Bosnia-Herzegovina, the locals could not be convinced to abandon pork, alcohol, or public displays of affection. Bosniak women persistently refused to wear the hijab or follow the other mandates for female behavior prescribed by extreme fundamentalist Islam.<ref name="Kohlmann" />

The signing of the Washington Agreement in March 1994 brought to an end to the Bosniak-Croat conflict in Bosnia. While the Mujahideen remained to fight on in the war against the Serbs, the Dayton Peace Accord of November 1995 ended the conflict for good, with international aid contingent keen on the disarmament and deportation of foreign volunteers. However, a certain number of former mujahideen who had either married native Bosnian Muslim women or who could not find a country to go to were permitted to stay in Bosnia and granted citizenship by the Bosnian government. In 2007 the Bosnia's authorities, pressured by the West, started reviewing these permits.

[modifier]

Asia

[modifier]

Aghanistan

Main articles: Civil war in Afghanistan (1996-2001) and War in Afghanistan (2001–present)

Modèle:Seealso

[modifier]

Pakistan and India

Main articles: Waziristan War and Lashkar-e-Toiba
[modifier]

Indonesia

Main article: Jemaah Islamiyah

Modèle:Seealso

[modifier]

Phillipines

Main article: Abu Sayyaf
[modifier]

The Middle East

Image:Riyadhbomb.jpg
Aftermath of one of the Riyadh bombings in Saudi Arabia

Modèle:Seealso

[modifier]

Iraq

Main articles: Saddam Hussein and al-Qaida and Al-Qaeda in Iraq

Modèle:See also

Osama bin Laden first took interest in Iraq when the country invaded Kuwait in 1990, raising concerns the secular Baathist government of Iraq might next set its sights on Saudi Arabia, homeland of bin Laden and Islam itself. In a letter sent to King Fahd, he offered to send an army of mujahedeen to defend Saudi Arabia, but the offer was rebuffed.<ref> Who is Osama Bin Laden? 

. BBC News
 (2006-05-28)

. Retrieved on 29 May, 2006. </ref> During the Gulf War, the organization's interests became split between outrage at the intervention of the United Nations in the region and hatred of Saddam Hussein's secular government.

Links between Saddam's regime and al-Qaeda, as claimed by the Bush Administration (which formed a crucial part of the WMD justification for the Iraq invasion), were non-existent or exaggerated, according to the report of both the United States Government's 9/11 Commission<ref> The 9/11 Commission Report, p.334 

. United States Government Printing Office
 (2004-07-22)

. Retrieved on 2 May, 2007. </ref> and the Pentagon;<ref>World Peace Herald: Pentagon report: There was no Saddam-al Qaida connection</ref> despite these conclusions, Vice President Dick Cheney has continued to publicly assert an Iraqi–al-Qaeda link.<ref> Cheney reasserts Iraq/al-Qaeda links 

. Financial Times
 (2006-09-10)

. Retrieved on 10 May, 2007. </ref> Recently, the US has acknowledged that the role of al-Qaeda in post-invasion violence in Iraq was overstated.<ref> Who is behind "Al Qaeda in Iraq"? Pentagon acknowledges fabricating a "Zarqawi Legend" 

. Centre for Research on Globalization
 (2006-04-18)

. Retrieved on 14 May, 2007. </ref> The US also claimed that al-Qaeda was in contact with the Kurdish Islamist group Ansar al-Islam from its inception in 1999; however, Ansar al-Islam's founder, Mullah Krekar, has staunchly denied any such link.<ref> Pam O'Toole 


  . 
 "
   Mullah denies Iraq al-Qaeda link 
     
 " , BBC News
  , 31 January, 2003
 
 . </ref>

Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq, elements at first loosely associated with al-Qaeda, commanded by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, have supported local resistance to the occupying coalition forces and the emerging government, particularly targeting Iraq's Shia majority.<ref name="aljazeera">" 

   Al-Zarqawi declares war on Iraqi Shia 
     
 " , Al Jazeera , September 14 2005
 
 . </ref> They have been implicated in the bombing of the United Nations headquarters in Iraq,<ref>Modèle:Cite press release</ref> as well as hundreds of other small and large scale attacks on the military and civilian targets.<ref>   Miklaszewski , Jim 
       
   
  . 
 "
   With Tuesday’s attacks, Abu Musab Zarqawi, a Jordanian militant with ties to al-Qaida, is now blamed for more than 700 terrorist killings in Iraq. 
     
 " , NBC News
  , March 2 2004
 
 . </ref> Eventually, al-Zarqawi claimed alliegance to bin Laden in October 2004.

Al-Zarqawi was killed by U.S. air strikes on a safe house near Baqubah on June 7, 2006. Before his death, he was allegedly trying to use Iraq as a launching pad for international terrorism, most notably dispatching suicide bombers to attack hotels and government targets in Jordan.<ref>" 

   Furious Jordanians take to streets 
     
 " , CNN
  , November 11 2005
 
 . </ref> Since the killing of al-Zarqawi, it was believed that Abu Ayyub al-Masri took over as head of "al-Qaeda in Iraq". On September 3, 2006 the second-in-command of "al-Qaeda in Iraq", Hamed Jumaa Farid al-Saeedi (also known as Abu Humam or Abu Rana), was arrested north of Baghdad, along with a group of his aides and followers.<ref>USA Today: Suspected No. 2 al-Qaeda leader arrested, 4 September 2006</ref>

Modèle:Seealso

[modifier]

Israel and Palestine

Bin Laden's and Ayman al-Zawahiri's repeatedly refer to the Palestinian cause in their manifestos and interviews. The Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and organization formed in the Gaza Strip during the 1970s by Fathi Shaqaqi and Abd Al Aziz Awda as a branch of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, an organization currently led by Ayman al-Zawahiri, is active in its attacks against Israel.

Al-Qaeda is suspected to have planned and carried out two nearly simultaneous attacks against Israeli civilian targets in Mombasa, Kenya, on November 28, 2002. Al-Qaeda also increased its external operations in 2005 by claiming credit for attacks including<ref name="Organizations"/> a rocket attack that narrowly missed U.S. Navy ship in Eilat, Israel, and the firing of several Katyusha rockets into Israel from Lebanon.

An extremist Gaza Strip group calling itself Army of Islam or "the organization of al-Qaeda in Palestine",<ref>Kershner, Isabel. "Bombing at U.S.-backed school in Gaza", International Herald Tribune, 04-21-2007. Retrieved 04-30-2007.</ref> which gained notoriety with kidnapping of Alan Johnston, draws inspiration from al-Qaeda.<ref>Reuters. "BBC's Johnston shown in tape wearing explosives", Reuters, 06-24-2007.</ref>

[modifier]

Lebanon

Main article: 2007 North Lebanon conflict

Shakir al-Abssi, a former associate of al-Qaeda in Iraq, recruited Palestinian refugees in Lebanon into Fatah al-Islam and rose against the government.<ref> Mekhennet, Souad/Moss, Michael. "A new face of Al Qaeda emerges in Lebanon", International Herald Tribune, 03-15-2007. Retrieved 03-23-2007.</ref> The exact nature of the group's al-Qaeda links remains a matter of controversy.

[modifier]

Organization structure and membership

Image:Bin laden 12 27a.jpg
Osama bin Laden in the December 2001 video
Image:Zarqawideathtribute.jpg
Al-Zawahiri praising al-Zarqawi after the death of the latter in 2006
[modifier]

The chain of command

Though the current structure of al-Qaeda is unknown, information mostly acquired from Jamal al-Fadl provided American authorities with a rough picture of how the group was organized. While the veracity of the information provided by al-Fadl and the motivation for his cooperation are both disputed, American authorities base much of their current knowledge of al-Qaeda on his testimony.<ref name="rename">A Traitor's Tale, Time, 19 February 2001</ref>

Osama bin Laden is the emir and Senior Operations Chief of al-Qaeda (although originally this role may have been filled by Abu Ayoub al-Iraqi), advised by a Shura Council, which consists of senior al-Qaeda members, estimated by Western officials at about twenty to thirty people. Ayman al-Zawahiri is al-Qaeda's Deputy Operations Chief and Abu Ayyub al-Masri is possibly the senior leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq.

  • The Military Committee is responsible for training operatives, acquiring weapons, and planning attacks.
  • The Money/Business Committee runs business operations, provides air tickets and false passports, pays al-Qaeda members, and oversees profit-driven businesses. In the 9/11 Commission Report, it is estimated that al-Qaeda requires $30,000,000 USD per year to conduct its operations.
  • The Law Committee reviews Islamic law and decides if particular courses of action conform to the law.
  • The Islamic Study/Fatwah Committee issues religious edicts, such as an edict in 1998 telling Muslims to kill Americans.
  • In the late 1990s there was a publicly known Media Committee, which ran the now-defunct newspaper Nashrat al Akhbar (Newscast) and handled public relations.
  • In 2005, al Qaeda formed As-Sahab, a media production house, to supply its video and audio materials.

The number of individuals belonging to the organization is also unknown. According to the controversial BBC documentary The Power of Nightmares, al-Qaeda is so weakly linked together that it is hard to say it exists apart from Osama bin Laden and a small clique of close associates. The lack of any significant numbers of convicted al-Qaeda members despite a large number of arrests on terrorism charges is cited by the documentary as a reason to doubt whether a widespread entity that meets the description of al-Qaeda exists at all. Therefore the extent and nature of al-Qaeda remains a topic of dispute.<ref>Modèle:Cite book</ref>

Its rank and file has been described as changing from being "predominantly Arab," in its first years of operation, to "largely Pakistani," as of 2007.<ref>Jihad's New Leaders by Daveed Gartenstein-Ross and Kyle Dabruzzi, Middle East Quarterly, Summer 2007</ref> It has been estimated that 62% of al-Qaeda members have university education, dispelling the notion that they are poor or ignorant.<ref>Today's jihadists: educated, wealthy and bent on killing?</ref>

[modifier]

Individuals identified as "al-Qaeda members"

Modèle:Col-start Modèle:Col-break 9/11 hijackers (American Airlines 11):

9/11 hijackers (United Airlines 175):

9/11 hijackers (American Airlines 77):

9/11 hijackers (United Airlines 93):

Modèle:Col-break

7/7 Suicide bombers (London):

Suspects at large (1998 Embassy Bombings and 2002 Kenya hotel bombing):

Other al-Qaeda leaders: 

. BBC News
 (2005-05-04)

. Retrieved on 29 May, 2006. </ref> 

. Guardian Unlimited
 (March 11, 2003)

. Retrieved on 29 May, 2006. </ref> 

. CNN.com
 (June 8, 2006)

. Retrieved on 8 June, 2006. </ref> 

. Al Jazeera English
 (May 1, 2007)

. Retrieved on 1 May, 2007. </ref> Al-Qaeda leader in Iraq. |}

[modifier]

Attacks

Main article: Timeline of al-Qaeda attacks
[modifier]

Internet activities

In the wake of its evacuation from Afghanistan, al-Qaeda and its successors have migrated online to escape detection in an atmosphere of increased international vigilance. As a result, the organization’s use of the Internet has grown more sophisticated, encompassing financing, recruitment, networking, mobilization, publicity, as well as information dissemination, gathering, and sharing.<ref>Timothy Thomas, "Al Qaeda and the Internet: The Danger of Cyberplanning" Retrieved February 14 2007.</ref> Abu Ayyub al-Masri’s al-Qaeda movement in Iraq regularly releases short videos glorifying the activity of jihadist suicide bombers. In addition, both before and after the death of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi (the former leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq), the umbrella organization to which al-Qaeda in Iraq belongs, the Mujahideen Shura Council, has a regular presence on the web where pronouncements are given by Murasel. This growing range of multimedia content includes guerrilla training clips, stills of victims about to be murdered, testimonials of suicide bombers, and epic-themed videos with high production values that romanticize participation in jihad through stylized portraits of mosques and musical scores. A website associated with al-Qaeda, for example, posted a video of captured American entrepreneur Nick Berg being decapitated in Iraq. Other decapitation videos and pictures, including those of Paul Johnson, Kim Sun-il, and Daniel Pearl, were first posted on jihadist websites.

With the rise of “locally rooted, globally inspired” terrorists, counter-terrorism experts are currently studying how al-Qaeda is using the Internet – through websites, chat rooms, discussion forums, instant messaging, and so on – to inspire a worldwide network of support. The July 7, 2005 bombers, some of whom were well integrated into their local communities, are an example of such “globally inspired” terrorists, and they reportedly used the Internet to plan and coordinate. A group called the "Secret Organization of al-Qaeda in Europe" has claimed responsibility for these London attacks on a militant Islamist website – another popular use of the Internet by terrorists seeking publicity.<ref> "Phony reports link Al Qaeda to London attacks" Retrieved February 14 2007.</ref>

The publicity opportunities offered by the Internet have been particularly exploited by al-Qaeda. In December 2004, for example, bin Laden released an audio message by posting it directly to a website, rather than sending a copy to al Jazeera as he had done in the past. Some analysts speculated that he did this to be certain it would be available unedited, out of fear that his criticism of Saudi Arabia — which was much more vehement than usual in this speech, lasting over an hour — might be removed by al Jazeera editors concerned about offending the Saudi royal family.[citation needed] With the assistance of two influential broadcast anchors, al-Qaeda's reach through video over the Internet and TV has significantly expanded.<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070601/ap_on_re_mi_ea/al_qaida_video_offensive</ref>

In the past, Alneda.com and Jehad.net were perhaps the most significant al-Qaeda websites. Alneda was initially taken down by American Jon Messner, but the operators resisted by shifting the site to various servers and strategically shifting content. The U.S. is currently attempting to extradite an information technology specialist, Babar Ahmad, from the UK, who is the creator of various English-language al-Qaeda websites such as Azzam.com.<ref> Whitlock, Craig 



     (August 8, 2005)
   
.    Briton Used Internet As His Bully Pulpit 
 (http)
. WashingtonPost.com

. Retrieved on 29 May, 2006. </ref><ref> Babar Ahmad Indicted on Terrorism Charges 

. United States Attorney's Office District of Connecticut
 (October 6, 2004)

. Retrieved on 29 May, 2006. </ref> Ahmad's extradition is opposed by various British Muslim organizations, such as the Muslim Association of Britain.

Finally, at a mid-2005 presentation for U.S. government terrorism analysts, Dennis Pluchinsky called the global jihadist movement “Web-directed,” and former CIA deputy director John E. McLaughlin has also said it is now primarily driven today by “ideology and the Internet.”[citation needed]

[modifier]

Al-Qaedaism

Al-Qaedaism, or al-Qaedism, is a political neologism coined after the terrorist attacks of 9/11 which refers to the set of religious beliefs, political doctrines, objectives, practices and methods, inspired by al-Qaeda. It is based on a militant, dogmatic and orthodox form of Islamism.

Rather than al-Qaeda evolving as a single monolithic organization, like a typical political party or military command structure, or one headed by a central figure like a crime syndicate, the exact opposite was created: a diverse, loosely-organized and widely-disbursed movement or ideology<ref name=US-FRUSTRATION-OVER-Al-QAEDA-RESURGENCE>" 

   US frustration over al-Qaeda 'resurgence' 
     
 " , BBC
  , 2007-01-12
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-01-12
 . </ref> comprised of many small and localized "self-generating" terrorist cells<ref name=THE-RISE-OF-AL-QAEDAISM>   The Rise of al-Qaedaism 
. Council on Foreign Relations 
 
 (2006-06-30)

. Retrieved on 2007-01-12. </ref> and individuals, some of which are not directly connected to al-Qaeda at all.<ref name=SPREAD-OF-BIN-LADEN-IDEOLOGY-CITED>" 

   Spread of Bin Laden Ideology Cited 
     
 " , 2004-04-04
 
  . Retrieved on 2007-01-12
 . </ref> It may be applied to other political movements, organizations and individuals who adopt similar beliefs and practices through the copycat effect or are accused of such through misattribution. The term is also applied retroactively to provide a name for the motive of Islamic fundamentalists who act or have acted similarly, even before the formal organization or naming of the al-Qaeda organization.
[modifier]

See also

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|}

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Notes & references

<references />
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Further reading

</div>

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Videos

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External links

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