Iceland

Un article de Vev.

Modèle:Otheruses1 Modèle:Infobox Country

Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland (Modèle:Lang-is; Modèle:IPA2) is a country in northern Europe, comprising the island of Iceland and its outlying islets in the North Atlantic Ocean between the rest of Europe and Greenland.<ref name="CIA Govt"> CIA - The World Fact book -- Iceland

. Government
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. Retrieved on August 6, 2006. </ref> It is the least populous of the Nordic countries and the second smallest; it has a population of about 313,000 and a total area of 103,000 km². Its capital and largest city is Reykjavík.

Due to its location on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Iceland is volcanically and geologically active on a large scale; this defines the landscape in various ways. The interior mainly consists of a plateau characterized by sand fields, mountains and glaciers, while many big glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Due to the Gulf Stream, Iceland has a temperate climate relative to its latitude and provides a habitable environment and nature.

Iceland has a history of habitation since the year 874 when, according to Landnámabók, the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfur Arnarson became the first permanent Norwegian settler on the island.<ref>History of Medieval Greenland</ref> Others had visited the island earlier and stayed over winter. Over the next centuries, people of Nordic and Gaelic origin settled in Iceland. Until the twentieth century, the Icelandic population relied on fisheries and agriculture, and was from 1262 to 1944 a part of the Norwegian and later the Danish monarchies. In the twentieth century, Iceland's economy and welfare system developed quickly.

As the most developed country in the world,<ref>[1]</ref> and the fourth most productive per capita,<ref>[2]</ref> Iceland is among the most prosperous countries in the world. It is based upon a mixed economy where service, finance, fishing and various industries are the main sectors. Iceland is a member of the UN, NATO, EFTA, EEA and OECD, but not of the European Union.

Sommaire 1 Geography 1.1 Topography 1.2 Geological activity 1.3 Climate 1.4 Flora and fauna 2 History 2.1 Age of settlement 2.2 Middle ages 2.3 Independence and recent history 3 Government 3.1 Subdivisions 3.2 Politics 3.3 Foreign relations 4 Demographics 4.1 Language 4.2 Religion 4.3 Social structure 4.3.1 Social system 5 Economy and infrastructure 5.1 Transportation 5.2 Energy 6 Culture 6.1 Literature and the arts 6.2 Music 6.3 Media 6.4 Cuisine 6.5 Sports 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

Geography

Main article: Geography of Iceland

Topography

Iceland is located in the North Atlantic Ocean just south of the Arctic Circle, which passes through the small island of Grímsey off Iceland's northern coast, but not through mainland Iceland. Unlike neighbouring Greenland, Iceland is considered to be a part of Europe, not of North America, though geologically, the island belongs to both continents. Because of cultural, economic and linguistic similarities, Iceland in many contexts is also included in Scandinavia. The closest bodies of land are Greenland (287 km) and the Faroe Islands (420 km). The closest distance to the mainland of Europe is 970 km (to Norway).

Iceland is the world's eighteenth-largest island, and Europe's second largest island following Great Britain. The country is 103,000 km² (39,768.5 sq mi) in size, of which 62.7 percent is wasteland. Lakes and glaciers cover a total of 14.3 percent. Only 23 percent is vegetated. <ref name="NLS"> National Land Survey of Iceland

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. Retrieved on 6 August 2006. </ref> The largest lakes are Þórisvatn (Reservoir): 83–88 km² (32–34 sq mi) and Þingvallavatn: 82 km² (32 sq mi); other important lakes include Lögurinn and Mývatn. Öskjuvatn is the deepest lake at 220 m (722 ft).

Many fjords punctuate its extensive coastline, which is also where most towns are situated because the island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland, is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sands and mountains. The major towns are the capital Reykjavík, Keflavík, where the international airport is situated, and Akureyri. The island of Grímsey on the Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland.<ref name="CIA Geo"> CIA - The World Factbook -- Iceland

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Iceland has four national parks: Jökulsárgljúfur National Park, Skaftafell National Park, Snæfellsjökull National Park, and Þingvellir National Park.

Geological activity

A geologically young land, Iceland is located on both a geological hot spot, thought to be caused by a mantle plume, and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs right through it. This combined location means that geologically the island is extremely active, having many volcanoes, notably Hekla, Eldgjá, and Eldfell. The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population;<ref>Late Holocene climate</ref> the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months after the eruption.

There are also many geysers in Iceland, including Geysir, from which the English name is derived. With this widespread availability of geothermal power, and also because of the numerous rivers and waterfalls that are harnessed for hydroelectricity, most residents have hot water and home heat for a low price. The island itself is composed primarily of basalt, a low-silica lava associated with effusive volcanism like Hawaii. There is, however, a variety of different kinds of volcanoes in Iceland, many of which produce more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite.

Iceland controls Surtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world. It rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between November 8, 1963 and June 5, 1968.<ref name="CIA Geo"/>

Climate

Main article: Climate of Iceland

The climate of Iceland's coast is cold oceanic. The warm North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world. The winters are mild and windy while the summers are damp and cool. Regions in the world with similar climate include the Aleutian Islands, Alaska Peninsula and Tierra del Fuego although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter. Ice incursions are rare, last having occurred on the north coast in 1969.<ref>Climate, History and the Modern World; Lamb H., 1995, Longman Publ.</ref>

There are some variations in the climate between different parts of the island. Very generally speaking, the south coast is warmer, wetter and windier than the north. Low lying inland areas in the north are the most arid. Snowfall in winters is more common in the north than the south. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country.

The highest air temperature recorded was 30.5 °C (86.9 °F) on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the south-eastern coast. The lowest temperature was -38 °C (-36.4 °F) on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in the northeast hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are 24.8 °C (76.6 °F) on 11 August 2004, and -24.5 °C (-12.1 °F) on 21 January 1918.

Mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures (°C) (1961–1990)<ref>Icelandic Climatic Data (English introduction), Veðurstofa Íslands (Icelandic Meteorological Office)</ref>

Location	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec		All
Reykjavík<ref>Reykjavík weather station (#1) climatic means chart from above site</ref>	1.9	2.8	3.2	5.7	9.4	11.7	13.3	13.0	10.1	6.8	3.4	2.2	High	7.0
	-3.0	-2.1	-2.0	0.4	3.6	6.7	8.3	7.9	5.0	2.2	-1.3	-2.8	Low	1.9
Akureyri<ref>Akureyri weather station (#422) climatic means chart from above site</ref>	0.9	1.7	2.1	5.4	9.5	13.2	14.5	13.9	9.9	5.9	2.6	1.3	High	6.7
	-5.5	-4.7	-4.2	-1.5	2.3	6.0	7.5	7.1	3.5	0.4	-3.5	-5.1	Low	0.2

Flora and fauna

The short time since the last ice age, 10,000 years ago, has provided very little time for plants and animals to immigrate from elsewhere or evolve locally. There are around 1,300 known species of insects in Iceland, which is rather low compared with other countries (there are about 925,000 known species in the world). The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the arctic fox. It came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. There are no native reptiles or amphibians on the island.

Approximately three-quarters of the island are barren of vegetation; plant life consists mainly of grassland which is regularly grazed by livestock. The only tree native to Iceland is the northern birch Betula pubescens, which formerly formed forest over much of southern Iceland. Permanent human settlement has caused great disturbance to an isolated ecosystem with thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity. The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation resulted in a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion, greatly reducing the ability of birches to grow back. Today, only a few small birch stands can be found in isolated reserves. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees since, but this cannot be compared with the original forests. Some of the planted forests include new foreign species.

The animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep, cattle, and the sturdy Icelandic horse. Many varieties of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a main contributor to Iceland’s economy, accounting for more than half of its total exports. Wild mammals include the arctic fox, mink, mice, rats, rabbits and reindeer. Before and around the 1900s polar bears occasionally visited the island, traveling on icebergs from Greenland. Birds, especially sea birds, are a very important part of Iceland's animal life. Puffins, skuas, and kittiwakes all nest on its sea cliffs. Though Iceland no longer has a commercial whaling fleet (as of August, 2007) it does still allow scientific whale hunts, which are not supported by the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission (IWC).

Modèle:See also

History

Main article: History of Iceland

Age of settlement

Modèle:See also

The first people thought to have inhabited Iceland were Irish monks or hermits who came in the eighth century, but left with the arrival of Norsemen, who systematically settled Iceland in the period AD 870-930. However, there is still no tangible evidence beyond the written word to support the theory of monk inhabitation yet, as well, any writings supporting the theory are conflicted.<ref>[3]</ref> The first known permanent Norse settler was Ingólfur Arnarson, who built his homestead in Reykjavík in 874. Ingólfur was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Norsemen and their Irish slaves. By 930, most arable land had been claimed and the Althing, a legislative and judiciary parliament, was founded as the political hub of the Icelandic Free State. Christianity was peacefully adopted in 1000. The Free State lasted until 1262, at which point the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains.

Middle ages

The internal struggles and civil strife of the Sturlung Era led to the signing of the Old Covenant, which brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed to Denmark-Norway in the late 14th century when the kingdoms of Norway and Denmark were united in the Kalmar Union. In the ensuing centuries, Iceland became one of the poorest countries in Europe. Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in a society whose subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture. In 1402–1404 and 1494–1495, the Black Death swept Iceland, each epidemic killing approximately half the population.<ref>6th-10th century AD</ref> Around the middle of the 16th century, King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects. The last Catholic bishop in Iceland was beheaded in 1550, after which the country became fully Lutheran. Lutheranism has remained the dominant religion ever since. In the 1600s and 1700s, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland, while pirates from England, Spain and Algeria raided Iceland's coasts.

Independence and recent history

In 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel. Iceland, however, remained a Danish dependency. The country's climate worsened during the 19th century, causing mass emigration to North America, largely Canada. Meanwhile, a new independence movement arose under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson, inspired by the romantic and nationalist ideologies of mainland Europe. In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland home rule, which was expanded in 1904. The Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark signed on December 1, 1918, recognized Iceland as a fully sovereign state under the Danish king.

During World War II, the German occupation of Denmark on April 9, 1940 severed communications between Iceland and Denmark. A month later, British military forces sailed into Reykjavík harbour, violating Icelandic neutrality. Allied occupation of Iceland lasted throughout the war. In 1941, responsibility for the occupation was taken over by the United States Army. Following a plebiscite, Iceland formally became an independent republic on June 17, 1944. The occupation force left in 1946. Iceland became a member of NATO on March 30, 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots and on May 5 1951, a defense agreement was signed with the United States -- American troops returned and stayed as part of the defense agreement throughout the Cold War and until the autumn of 2006.

The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth, driven by industrialization of the fishing industry and by the rebuilding, Marshall aid and Keynesian government management of the economies of Europe, all of which promoted trade. The 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars – several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits. The economy was greatly diversified and liberalized following Iceland's joining of the European Economic Area in 1992.

Government

Main article: Politics of Iceland

Iceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. The modern parliament, called "Alþingi" (English: Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish king. It was widely seen as a reestablishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the Commonwealth period and suspended in 1799. It currently has sixty-three members, each of whom is elected every four years.

The president of Iceland is a largely ceremonial office that serves as a diplomat, figurehead and head of state, but who can also block a law voted by the parliament and put it to a national referendum. The current president is Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson. The head of government is the prime minister, who, together with the cabinet, takes care of the executive part of government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after general elections to Althing; however, this process is usually conducted by the leaders of the political parties, who decide among themselves after discussions which parties can form the cabinet and how its seats are to be distributed, under the condition that it has a majority support in Althing. Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves in reasonable time does the president exercise this power and appoint the cabinet himself. This has not happened since the republic was founded in 1944, but in 1942 the regent of the country (Sveinn Björnsson, who had been installed in that position by the Althing in 1941) did appoint a non-parliamentary government. The regent had, for all practical purposes, the position of a president, and Sveinn in fact became the country's first president in 1944.

The governments of Iceland have almost always been coalitions with two or more parties involved, due to the fact that no single political party has received a majority of seats in Althing in the republic period. The extent of the political powers possessed by the office of the president is disputed by legal scholars in Iceland; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers but other provisions and traditions suggest differently. Iceland elected the world's first female president, Vigdís Finnbogadóttir in 1980 and she retired from office in 1996.

Elections for the office of town councils, parliament and presidency are each held every four years. The next elections are going to be held in 2010, 2011 and 2008, respectively.

Subdivisions

Main article: Administrative and electoral divisions of Iceland

Iceland is divided into regions, constituencies, counties, and municipalities. There are eight regions which are primarily used for statistical purposes; the district court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division.<ref name="CIA Govt"/> Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliament elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies:

• Reykjavík North and Reykjavík South (city regions);
• Southwest (four geographically separate suburban areas around Reykjavík);
• Northwest and Northeast (north half of Iceland, split); and,
• South (south half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs).

The redistricting change was made in order to balance the weight of different districts of the country, since a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system, but still exists.<ref name="CIA Govt"/>

Iceland's twenty-three counties are, for the most part, historical divisions. Currently, Iceland is split up among twenty-six magistrates that represent government in various capacities. Among their duties are running the local police (except in Reykjavík, where there is a special office of police commissioner), tax collection, administering bankruptcy declarations, and performing civil marriages.<ref name="CIA Govt"/>

There are seventy-nine municipalities in Iceland which govern local matters like schools, transportation and zoning. These are the actual second-level subdivisions of Iceland, as the constituencies have no revelance except in elections and for statistical purposes. Reykjavík is by far the most populous municapility, about four times more populous than Kópavogur, the second one. <ref name="CIA Govt"/>

Regions of Iceland

Constituencies of Iceland

Counties of Iceland

Politics

Iceland has a typical Modèle:Weasel-inline left-right multi-party system. The biggest party is the right wing Independence Party (’’Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn’’), while the second largest one is the social democratic Alliance (‘’Samfylkingin’’). Following the May 2007 parliamentary elections, these two formed a coalition, enjoying a strong majority in Althing, with 43 out of 63 members supporting it.

Other political parties that have a seat in Althing are the centrist Progressive Party (‘’Framsóknarflokkurinn’’), which had been in government with the Independence Party for 12 years before the 2007 election, the Left-Green Movement (‘’Vinstrihreyfingin - grænt framboð’’), founded in 1999, and the Centre-right Liberal Party. Many other parties exist on the municipal level, most of which only run locally in a single municipality.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Iceland

Iceland maintains diplomatic and commercial relations with practically all nations, but its ties with the Nordic countries, the US, and with the other NATO nations are particularly close. Icelanders remain especially proud of the role Iceland played in hosting the historic 1986 Reagan-Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of the Cold War. Iceland's principal historical international disputes involved disagreements over fishing rights. Conflict with UK\Britain led to the so-called Cod Wars in 1952-1956 because of extension of Fishing zone from 3 to 4 nautical miles (6 to 7 km), 1958-1961 because of extending the fishing zone to 12 nautical miles (22 km) in 1972-1973 because of extension to 50 nautical miles and in 1975 to 1976 because of extension to 200 nautical miles (370 km).

Iceland has no standing army. The U.S. Air Force maintained four to six interceptors at the Keflavík base, until 2006 when they were withdrawn. Iceland supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq despite much controversy and condemnation in Iceland. Iceland also participated in the Invasion of Afghanistan and the 1999 bombing of Yugoslavia.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Iceland

Citizenship of Iceland residents (Dec. 2005) <ref> Population by citizenship 1981-2006 . www.statice.is .</ref>

Iceland	289,109
Poland	5,996
Lithuania	998
Germany	945
Denmark	936
Ex-Yugoslavia	783
Philippines	778
China (PRC)	755
Portugal	748
United States	646
others	5,978

The original population of Iceland was of Nordic and Celtic origin. This is evident by literary evidence from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as blood type and genetic analysis. One such genetics study has indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Celtic origin.<ref>Helgason, Agnar et al. (2000). Estimating Scandinavian and Gaelic Ancestry in the Male Settlers of Iceland. American Journal of Human Genetics, 67:697–717, 2000. Institute of Biological Anthropology, University of Oxford.</ref> The modern population of Iceland is often described as a "homogeneous mixture of descendants of Norse and Irish Celts" but some history scholars reject the alleged homogeneity as a myth that fails to take into account the fact that Iceland was never completely isolated from the rest of Europe and actually has had a lot of contact with traders and fishermen from many nations through the ages.

Iceland has extensive genealogical records dating back to the late 1600s and fragmentary records extending back to the Age of Settlement. The biopharmaceutical company deCODE Genetics has funded the creation of a genealogy database which attempts to cover all of Iceland's known inhabitants. It sees the database, called Íslendingabók, as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases, given the relative isolation of Iceland's population.

The population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ashfall from volcanic eruptions, and plagues adversely affected the population several times. The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population of the island was then 50,358. After the destructive volcanic eruptions of the Laki volcano during 1783–1784 the population reached a low of about 40,000. Improving living conditions triggered a rapid increase in population from the mid-19th century to the present day - from about 60,000 in 1850 to 313,000 in 2007.

In December 2006, 30,387 people (9.9% of the total population) who were living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad. 18,563 people (6% of the total population) held foreign citizenship. Poles make up the far largest minority nationality (see table on the right for more details). The recent surge in immigration has been credited to a labor shortage because of the booming economy while restrictions on the movement of people from the Eastern European countries that joined the EU/EEA in 2004 have been lifted. Large-scale construction projects in the east of Iceland (see Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Project) have also brought in many people whose stay is expected to be temporary.

The south-west corner of Iceland is the most densely populated region, It is also the location of the capital Reykjavík, the northernmost capital in the world. The largest towns outside the capital region are Akureyri and Reykjanesbær.

Language

Main article: Icelandic language

Iceland's official written and spoken language is Icelandic, a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse. It has changed less from Old Norse than the other Nordic languages, has preserved more verb and noun inflection, and has to a considerable extent developed new vocabulary based on native roots rather than borrowings from English. It is the only living language to retain the runic letter Þ. The closest living language to Icelandic is Faroese. In education, the use of Icelandic Sign Language for the Deaf in Iceland is regulated by the National Curriculum Guide.

English is widely spoken, and many Icelanders speak it at an almost native level. Danish is also widely understood. Studying both these languages is a mandatory part of the compulsory school curriculum.<ref>Iceland Export Directory[http://www.icelandexport.is/english/about_iceland/icelandic_language/ </ref> Other commonly spoken languages are German, Norwegian and Swedish. Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible to Swedes and Norwegians – it is often referred to as "Scandinavian" in Iceland.

In addition to Icelandic, many immigrants speak their respective native languages. Polish is arguably the most widespread of them.^{[citation needed]}

Religion

Main article: Religion in Iceland

Icelanders enjoy freedom of religion under the constitution, though there is no separation of church and state. The National Church of Iceland, a Lutheran body, is the state church and all Icelanders are automatically registered as members of it and therefore the following numbers do not represent actual belief.^{[citation needed]} The national registry keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen. In 2005, Icelanders divided into religious groups as follows:<ref name="CIA People"> CIA - The World Factbook -- Iceland

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• 82.1% members of the National Church of Iceland.
• 4.7% members of the Free Lutheran Churches of Reykjavík and Hafnarfjörður.
• 2.6% not members of any religious group.
• 2.4% members of the Roman Catholic Church, which has a Diocese of Reykjavík (see also Bishop of Reykjavik (Catholic))
• 5.5% members of unregistered religious organisations or with no specified religious affiliation

The remaining 2.7% is mostly divided between around 20–25 other Christian denominations and sects, with less than 1% of the population in non-Christian religious organisations although polls have shown that 43% of the population never attends religious events and only 10% attends regularly.Modèle:Facts The largest of the aforementioned denominations and sects being Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið, a neo-pagan group.<ref>Hagstofa Íslands</ref>

Social structure

Iceland is the most developed society in the world, ranked first on the United Nations’ Human Development Index. Icelanders are the second longest-living nation with a life expectancy at birth of 81.8 years.

Iceland is a very technologically advanced society. In 1999, 82,3 percent of Icelanders had access to a computer, <ref>[4]</ref> and this figure has not declined in the last years. Iceland also had 1,007 cell phone subscribtions per 1,000 people in 2006, the 16th highest in the world. <ref> CIA - The World Factbook -- Iceland

. Demographics
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. Retrieved on November 29, 2007. </ref> The social structure of Iceland is very dependent upon transportation, especially the personal automobile; Icelanders have on average one car per inhabitant older than 17 years, <ref>[5]</ref> one of the highest figures in the world. Most Icelanders travel by car to work, school or other activities.

Social system

Iceland is a welfare state and its population enjoys a wide range of benefits, for example old-age pensions and unemployment benefits. Icelanders also have access to excellent Modèle:Weasel-inline healthcare and education. This means that Iceland has very high taxation, like other Nordic countries. The Ministry of Health runs the healthcare system. The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines. However, the playschools and the primary and lower secondary schools are funded and administered by the municipalities.

Playschool or leikskóli, is non-compulsory education for those under the age of six, and is the first step in the education system. The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 1994. They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable so as to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible.

Compulsory education, or grunnskóli (lit. “basic school”), comprises primary and lower secondary education, which often is conducted at the same institution. The law states that education is mandatory for children and adolescents between the ages of 6 and 16. The school year lasts nine months, and begins between August 21 and September 1, ending between May 31 and June 10. The minimum number of school days is 170, but after a new teachers’ wage contract, this will increase to 180. Lessons take place five days a week. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks the Icelandic secondary education as the 27th in the world, being significantly below the OECD average.[6]

Upper secondary education or framhaldsskóli (lit. “continued school”), follows lower secondary education. These schools are also known as gymnasia in English. It is not compulsory, but everyone who has had their compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education. This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996. Like all other schools in Iceland, upper secondary schools are mixed sex.

Economy and infrastructure

Main article: Economy of Iceland

Iceland is the fourth most productive country in the world based on nominal gross domestic product per capita (54,858 USD), but due in part to heavy taxation, it ranks the fifth most productive country in the world based on GDP at purchasing power parity (40,112 USD). Except for its abundant hydro-electric and geothermal power, Iceland lacks natural resources; historically its economy has depended heavily on the fishing industry, which still provides almost 40% of export earnings and employs 8% of the work force. The economy is vulnerable to declining fish stocks as well as to drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, aluminium, and ferrosilicon. Although the Icelandic economy still relies heavily on fishing its importance is diminishing as the travel industry and other service, technology and various other industries grow. Economic growth slowed between 2000 and 2002, but the economy expanded by 4.3% in 2003 and grew by 6.2% in 2004. The unemployment rate of ~1.0% (2007 est.) is among the lowest in the European Economic Area.

Even though Iceland is a very developed country, it is still one of the most newly-industrialized ones in Europe. Until the twentieth century, it was probably the poorest country in Western Europe. The fast economic growth that the country has experienced in the last decades is only recently allowing for upgrading of infrastructure such as transportation. The government coalition plans to continue its generally neo-liberal policies of reducing the budget and current account deficits, limiting foreign borrowing, containing inflation, revising agricultural and fishing policies, diversifying the economy, and privatising state-owned industries. The government remains opposed to EU membership, primarily because of Icelanders' concern about losing control over their fishing resources.

Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, and new developments in software production, biotechnology, and financial services are taking place. The tourism sector is also expanding, with the recent trends in ecotourism and whale-watching. Iceland's agriculture industry consists mainly of potatoes, turnips, green vegetables (in greenhouses), mutton and dairy products.<ref name="CIA Economy"> CIA - The World Factbook -- Iceland

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. Retrieved on July 20, 2007. </ref> Borgartún is the financial center in Reykjavik, hosting a large number of companies and three investment banks. Iceland's stock market, the Iceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985.

The primary currency of Iceland is the Icelandic Króna (ISK). Iceland's then foreign minister Valgerður Sverrisdóttir said in an interview on 15 January 2007 that she seriously wished to look into whether Iceland can join the Euro without being a member of the EU. She believes it is difficult to maintain an independent currency in a small economy on the open European market.<ref> Spongenberg , Helena

  . 
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   Slovenia celebrates full entry into euro club 
     
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  . Retrieved on 2007-01-16
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Transportation

Main article: Transportation in Iceland

The main mode of transport in Iceland is by road. Iceland has 13,034 km of administered roads, 4,617 km of which are paved and 8,338 km of which are not. This small proportion of paved roads can be explained by the fact that until the second half of the twentieth century, Iceland did not have the economic capability to build paved roads outside the biggest towns at all. Today, however, roads are being improved all around the country and freeways are being built inside and around Reykjavík. Still, Iceland has no railroads.

Route 1 or the Ring Road (Icelandic: Þjóðvegur 1 or Hringvegur) is a main road in Iceland that runs around the island and connects all habitable parts of the country together (the interior of the island being uninhabited). The total length of the road is 1339 km (840 miles). For almost all its length, the road is two lanes wide with one lane in each direction except when it passes through larger towns and cities where it may be expanded to more lanes as well as in the Hvalfjörður Tunnel. Most smaller bridges are single lane and made of wood and/or steel. The road is paved with asphalt for most of its length but there are still stretches of it in the east part of the country that are unpaved and with gravel surface. The main hub for international transportation is Keflavík International Airport, which serves Reykjavík and the country in general. There is a total of 86 airport runways in Iceland, most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas.

Energy

Renewable energy provides over 70% of the nation's primary energy.<ref>Gross energy consumption by source 1987–2005, Statistics Iceland, accessed 2007-05-14</ref> Over 99% of the country's electricity is produced from hydropower and geothermal energy, and the country expects to be energy-independent by 2050.<ref>Gross energy consumption by source 1987–2005, Statistics Iceland, accessed 2007-05-14</ref> The country's largest geothermal power plant is located in Nesjavellir, while the Kárahnjúkar dam will be the country's largest hydroelectric power plant. However, Icelanders still emit 10.0 tonnes of CO2 equivalent of greenhouse gasses per capita, higher than for example France and Spain. This can be explained with the great use of personal transport in Iceland. Iceland is the only nation in the world that has filling stations dispensing hydrogen fuel for cars powered by fuel cells. It is also one of only a few nations currently capable of producing hydrogen in adequate quantities at reasonable cost, because Iceland has plentiful geothermal energy.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Iceland

Icelandic culture has its roots in Viking and Norse traditions. Icelandic literature is popular, in particular the sagas and eddas which were written around the time of the island’s settlement. Icelanders generally have a traditional liberal Nordic outlook, similar to other Nordic countries such as Norway and Sweden. Yet, an important key to understanding Icelanders and their culture (and which differentiates them from the majority of their contemporary Nordic peoples) is the high importance they place on the traits of independence and self-sufficiency; in a European Commission public opinion analysis over 85% of Icelanders found independence to be "very important" contrasted with the EU25 average of 53%, and 47% for the Norwegians, and 49% for the Danes.<ref name="europeancommission"> European Commission Eurobarometer Social values, Science and Technology analysis June 2005 p.35

.</ref> Until the Christianization of Iceland, many traditional Viking beliefs were strongly held, remnants of which remain today. For example, some Icelanders either believe in elves or are unwilling to rule out their existence.<ref name="nytimes"> www.nytimes.com/2005/07/13/international/europe/13elves.html?ex=1278907200&en=5e99759b563f81fe&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss

.</ref> Iceland ranks first on the Human Development Index, and was recently ranked the fourth happiest country in the world.<ref> www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061113093726.htm

.</ref>

Iceland is liberal in terms of LGBT matters. In 1996, Parliament passed legislation to create registered partnerships for same-sex couples, covering nearly all the rights and benefits of marriage. In 2006, by unanimous vote of Parliament, further legislation was passed, granting same-sex couples the same rights as different-sex couples in adoption, parenting and assisted insemination treatment.

Literature and the arts

Main articles: Icelandic literature and Art of Iceland

Iceland's best-known classical works of literature are the Icelanders' sagas, prose epics set in Iceland's age of settlement. The most famous of these include Njáls saga, about an epic blood feud, and Grænlendinga saga and Eiríks saga, describing the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (modern Newfoundland). Egils saga, Laxdæla saga, Grettis saga, Gísla saga and Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu are also notable and popular Icelanders' sagas. In 1262, Iceland united to the Norwegian monarchy, and lost its independence, starting a decline in literature. A great translation of the Bible was published in the sixteenth century. Important compositions of the time from the 15th century to the 19th centure include sacred verse, most famously the Passíusálmar of Hallgrímur Pétursson, and rímur, rhymed epic poems with alliterative verse that consist in two to four verses per stanza, popular until the end of the nineteenth century. In recent times, Iceland has produced many great writers, best-known of them is arguably Halldór Laxness, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1955.

The distinctive rendition of the Icelandic landscape by its painters can be linked to nationalism and the movement toward home rule and independence, which was very active in this period. Other landscape artists quickly followed in the footsteps of Þorláksson and Jónsson. These included Jóhannes Kjarval, Jón Stefánsson, and Júlíana Sveinsdóttir. Kjarval in particular is noted for the distinct techniques in the application of paint that he developed in a concerted effort to render the characteristic volcanic rock that dominates the Icelandic environment. Contemporary Icelandic painting is typically traced to the work of Þórarinn Þorláksson, who, following formal training in art in the 1890s in Copenhagen, returned to Iceland to paint and exhibit works from 1900 to his death in 1924, almost exclusively portraying the Icelandic landscape. Þorláksson was not the only Icelandic artist learning in Denmark at that time: there were several Icelanders, both men and women, at the Academy in the closing years of the century, and these included Ásgrímur Jónsson, who together with Þorláksson created a distinctive portrayal of their home country's landscape in a romantic naturalistic style. Icelandic architecture draws from Scandinavian influences and, traditionally, was influenced by the lack of native trees on the island. As a result, grass- and turf-covered houses were developed. The original grasshouses constructed by the original settlers of Iceland were based on Viking longhouses.

Music

Main article: Music of Iceland

Icelandic music is related to Nordic music forms, and includes vibrant folk and pop traditions, including medieval music group Voces Thules, alternative rock band The Sugarcubes, singers Björk and Emiliana Torrini; and Sigur Rós. The national anthem of Iceland is "Lofsöngur", written by Matthías Jochumsson, with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson <ref> The Icelandic National Anthem

. musik og saga

 

. Retrieved on November 11, 2005. </ref>.

Traditional Icelandic music is strongly religious in character. Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote numerous Protestant hymns in the 17th century. This music was further modernized in the 19th century, when Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs, which were followed by harmoniums. Epic alliterative and rhyming ballads called rímur are another vital tradition of Icelandic music. Rímur are epic tales, usually a cappella, which can be traced back to the Viking Age Eddic poetry of the Skalds, using complex metaphors and cryptic rhymes and forms. Some of the most famous rímur were written from the 18th to the early 20th century, by poets like Hannes Bjarnason (1776-1838), Jón Sigurðsson (1853-1922) and Sigurður Breiðfjörð (1798-1846). Rímur were, for a long time, officially banned by the Christian church, though they remained popular throughout the period. A modern revitalization of the tradition began in 1929 with the formation of the organization Iðunn <ref>Cronshaw, pgs. 168-169</ref>.

Icelandic contemporary music consists of a big group of bands, ranging from pop-rock groups such as Sálin hans Jóns míns, Á móti sól (Rockstar: Supernova Magni's band), Írafár, Í Svörtum Fötum, Quarashi, Bang Gang, Amiina, and Skítamórall,to solo ballad singers like Bubbi Morthens, Megas, Björgvin Halldórsson and Páll Rósinkranz. The indie-scene is also very strong in Iceland, bands such as Múm, Sigur Rós and the solo artist Mugison are fairly well-known outside Iceland. Many Icelandic artists and bands have had great success internationally, most notably Björk and Sigur Rós but also Quarashi, Ampop, Mínus and múm. The main music festival is arguably Iceland Airwaves, a yearly event on the Icelandic music scene, where Icelandic bands along with foreign ones occupy the clubs of Reykjavík for a week.

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Media

Iceland’s largest television stations are the state-run Sjónvarpið and the privately owned Stöð 2. The third largest station is Skjár einn. Other smaller stations exist, many of them locally. Radio is broadcast throughout the country, including some parts of the interior. The main radio stations are Rás 1, Rás 2 and Bylgjan. There are three newspapers published on a daily basis in Iceland, Morgunblaðið, Fréttablaðið and 24 stundir (formerly known as Blaðið). Icelanders are a very technologically advanced nation and a large portion of the nation keeps a blog. The most popular websites are Vísir and Mbl.is, both of them news sites. <ref>[ http://www.visindavefur.hi.is/svar.php?id=5456], accessed 2007-11-29</ref>

Iceland is home to the television station Nick Jr.'s animated program LazyTown (Icelandic: Latibær), a children's television program created by Magnús Scheving. It has become a very popular program for children and adults, and is shown in over 98 countries, including the US, Canada, Sweden and Latin America.<ref> entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/theatre/article2055496.ece

.</ref> The LazyTown Studios are located in Garðabær.

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Cuisine

Main articles: Cuisine of Iceland and Þorramatur

The majority of the national foods of Iceland are based around fish, lamb and dairy products. Þorramatur is a national food, consisting of many different dishes; this is not consumed on a daily basis but usually around the month of Þorri. Traditional dishes include skyr, cured ram scrota, cured shark, singed sheep heads and black pudding. The modern Icelandic diet is very diverse, and includes cuisines from all over the world. Still, the normal Icelandic breakfast and meal is casual and may include bread, cereal and fruits, for example. The dinner is more diverse. Like in other Western societies, fast food restaurants are widespread. Casual dining is popular as well.

Sports

Main article: Sport in Iceland

Sport is an important part of the Icelandic culture. The main traditional sport in Iceland is Glíma, a form of wrestling, thought to have originated with the Vikings. It is still played in Iceland. Though changing in the past years, Icelanders remain a very healthy nation and children and teenagers participate in various types of leisure activities. Popular sports today are mainly football, track and field, handball and basketball. Sports such as golf, tennis, swimming, chess and horseback riding on Icelandic horses are also popular. Team handball is often referred to as a national sport, Iceland's team is one of the top ranked teams in the world, and Icelandic women are surprisingly good at football compared to the size of the country, the national team ranked the eighteenth best by FIFA. Iceland has excellent conditions for ice and rock climbing, although mountain climbing and hiking is preferred by the general public. The oldest sport association in Iceland is the Reykjavik Shooting Association, founded 1867. Rifle shooting became very popular in the 19th century and was heavily encouraged by politicians and others pushing for Icelandic independence. Shooting remains popular and all types of shooting with small arms practiced in the country. <ref> Skotfélag Reykjavíkur

. Retrieved on September 2, 2007. </ref>

See also

Main article: List of Iceland-related topics

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References

External links

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• Official Gateway of Iceland
• Daily news from Iceland in English from Iceland Review online
• The Icelandic Government's website in English
• Iceland Information
• History of Iceland: Primary Documents

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