Renaissance
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Modèle:Otheruses4 Modèle:Renaissance www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/defining.htm Looking at the Renaissance: Defining the Renaissance] (Retrieved 10-05-2007)</ref> The Renaissance had wide-ranging consequences in all intellectual pursuits, but is perhaps best known for its artistic aspect and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who have inspired the term "Renaissance men".<ref>BBC Science & Nature, Leonardo da Vinci (Retrieved on May 12 2007)</ref><ref>BBC History, Michelangelo (Retrieved on May 12 2007)</ref>//www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/defining.htm Looking at the Renaissance: Defining the Renaissance] (Retrieved 10-05-2007)</ref> The Renaissance had wide-ranging consequences in all intellectual pursuits, but is perhaps best known for its artistic aspect and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who have inspired the term "Renaissance men".<ref>BBC Science & Nature, Leonardo da Vinci (Retrieved on May 12 2007)</ref><ref>BBC History, Michelangelo (Retrieved on May 12 2007)</ref>
There is a consensus, though not a unanimous one, that the Renaissance began in Florence in the fourteenth century.<ref>P. Burke, The European Renaissance: Centre and Peripheries (Blackwell, Oxford 1998)</ref> Various theories have been proposed to explain its origin and characteristics, focusing on an assortment of factors, including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at this time including its political structure and the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici.
www.wsu.edu/~dee/REN/IDEA.HTM The Idea of the Renaissance], Richard Hooker, Washington State University Website (Retrieved on May 2 2007)</ref> The word Renaissance has also been used to describe other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Byzantine Renaissance.//www.wsu.edu/~dee/REN/IDEA.HTM The Idea of the Renaissance], Richard Hooker, Washington State University Website (Retrieved on May 2 2007)</ref> The word Renaissance has also been used to describe other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Byzantine Renaissance.
Sommaire |
Overview
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence was felt in literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual enquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art.<ref name="openuni-looking" />
Renaissance thinkers sought out learning from ancient texts, typically written in Latin or ancient Greek. Scholars scoured Europe's monastic libraries, searching for works of antiquity which had fallen into obscurity. In such texts they found a desire to improve and perfect their worldly knowledge; an entirely different sentiment to the transcendental spirituality stressed by medieval Christianity.<ref name="openuni-looking" />Modèle:Failed verification www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/religion.htm Looking at the Renaissance: Religious Context in the Renaissance] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref>//www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/religion.htm Looking at the Renaissance: Religious Context in the Renaissance] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref>
www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/economic.htm#urban Looking at the Renaissance: Urban economy and government] (Retrieved May 15 2007)</ref>//www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/economic.htm#urban Looking at the Renaissance: Urban economy and government] (Retrieved May 15 2007)</ref>
In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought.
Assimilation of Greek and Arabic knowledge
Modèle:See www.medievalhistory.net/islamica.htm The Islamic Foundation of the Renaissance], (Northwest and Pacific, 1999) (Retrieved on 10-05-2007)</ref> Renaissance scholars such as Niccolò de' Niccoli and Poggio Bracciolini scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such classical authors as Plato, Cicero and Vitruvius.<ref name="strathern">Strathern, Paul The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance (2003) p81-90, p172-197</ref> Additionally, as the reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from Islamic Moors progressed, numerous Greek and Arabic works were captured from educational institutions such as the library at Córdoba, which claimed to have 400,000 books.<ref name="islamicworld">The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary Website (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> The works of ancient Greek and Hellenistic writers (such as Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy, and Plotinus) and Muslim scientists and philosophers (such as Geber, Abulcasis, Alhacen, Avicenna, Avempace, and Averroes), were imported into the Christian world, providing new intellectual material for European scholars.//www.medievalhistory.net/islamica.htm The Islamic Foundation of the Renaissance], (Northwest and Pacific, 1999) (Retrieved on 10-05-2007)</ref> Renaissance scholars such as Niccolò de' Niccoli and Poggio Bracciolini scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such classical authors as Plato, Cicero and Vitruvius.<ref name="strathern">Strathern, Paul The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance (2003) p81-90, p172-197</ref> Additionally, as the reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from Islamic Moors progressed, numerous Greek and Arabic works were captured from educational institutions such as the library at Córdoba, which claimed to have 400,000 books.<ref name="islamicworld">The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary Website (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> The works of ancient Greek and Hellenistic writers (such as Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy, and Plotinus) and Muslim scientists and philosophers (such as Geber, Abulcasis, Alhacen, Avicenna, Avempace, and Averroes), were imported into the Christian world, providing new intellectual material for European scholars.
www.roma.unisa.edu.au/07305/medmm.htm History of Medieval Mathematics] University of South Australia Website (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> The decline of the Byzantine Empire after 1204 - and its eventual fall in 1453 - led to a sharp increase in the exodus of Greek scholars to Italy and beyond. These scholars brought with them texts and knowledge of the classical Greek civilization which had been lost for centuries in the West.<ref name="historyworld">History of the Renaissance, HistoryWorld (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> and they transmitted the art of exegesis.//www.roma.unisa.edu.au/07305/medmm.htm History of Medieval Mathematics] University of South Australia Website (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> The decline of the Byzantine Empire after 1204 - and its eventual fall in 1453 - led to a sharp increase in the exodus of Greek scholars to Italy and beyond. These scholars brought with them texts and knowledge of the classical Greek civilization which had been lost for centuries in the West.<ref name="historyworld">History of the Renaissance, HistoryWorld (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> and they transmitted the art of exegesis.
Social and political structures in Italy
books.google.com/books?id=x9grA0fWpDMC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=italy+urban+population+15th+century&sig=7QjemnDKllytG-1qNFygZFmlUD0 Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1550], ed. John M. Najemy (Oxford University Press, 2004) p.89 (Retrieved on 10-05-2007)</ref> Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire's heartlands.<ref>Jacob Burckhardt, "The Revivial of Antiquity," The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (trans. by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878)</ref>//books.google.com/books?id=x9grA0fWpDMC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=italy+urban+population+15th+century&sig=7QjemnDKllytG-1qNFygZFmlUD0 Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1550], ed. John M. Najemy (Oxford University Press, 2004) p.89 (Retrieved on 10-05-2007)</ref> Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire's heartlands.<ref>Jacob Burckhardt, "The Revivial of Antiquity," The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (trans. by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878)</ref>
www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/1-7.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] (trans. by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878)</ref> Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the Levant. Venice was Europe's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fine glass, while Florence was a capital of silk and jewelry. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant that large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.<ref name="burckhardt-republics" />//www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/1-7.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] (trans. by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878)</ref> Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the Levant. Venice was Europe's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fine glass, while Florence was a capital of silk and jewelry. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant that large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.<ref name="burckhardt-republics" />
The Black Death
www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/blackdeath.html The End of Europe's Middle Ages: The Black Death] University of Calgary website. (Retrieved on 5 April 2007)</ref> However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.<ref name="brotton">J. Brotton, The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction (OUP, 2006)</ref>//www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/blackdeath.html The End of Europe's Middle Ages: The Black Death] University of Calgary website. (Retrieved on 5 April 2007)</ref> However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.<ref name="brotton">J. Brotton, The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction (OUP, 2006)</ref>
Cultural conditions in Florence
It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in Florence, and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life which may have caused such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized the role played by the Medici family in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de' Medici devoted huge sums to commissioning works from Florence's leading artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, and Michelangelo Buonarroti.<ref name="strathern" />
www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/2-1.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] (trans. by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878)</ref> Da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men" were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time.<ref>J. Stephens, "Individualism and the cult of creative personality", The Italian Renaissance (New York, 1990) pp. 121</ref>//www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/2-1.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] (trans. by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878)</ref> Da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men" were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time.<ref>J. Stephens, "Individualism and the cult of creative personality", The Italian Renaissance (New York, 1990) pp. 121</ref>
The Renaissance's characteristics
Humanism
Humanism was not a philosophy per se, but rather a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic mode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in the original, and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence. Humanist education was based on the study of poetry, grammar, ethics and rhetoric. Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of man... the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind."<ref>As asserted by Gianozzo Manetti in On the Dignity and Excellence of Man. Cited in Clare, J, Italian Renaissance.</ref>
Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas More revived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers, and applied them in critiques of contemporary government. Theologians, notably Erasmus and Martin Luther, challenged the Aristotelian status quo, introducing radical new ideas of justification and faith (for more, see Religion below).
Art
sirl.stanford.edu/~bob/teaching/pdf/arth202/Stork_SciAm04.pdf Optics and Realism in Renaissance Art] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> To that end, painters also developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci, human anatomy. Underlying these changes in artistic method was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature, and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were to be much imitated by other artists.<ref>Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists, trans. George Bull, Penguin Classics,(1965), ISBN 0-14-044-164-6</ref>//sirl.stanford.edu/~bob/teaching/pdf/arth202/Stork_SciAm04.pdf Optics and Realism in Renaissance Art] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> To that end, painters also developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci, human anatomy. Underlying these changes in artistic method was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature, and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were to be much imitated by other artists.<ref>Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists, trans. George Bull, Penguin Classics,(1965), ISBN 0-14-044-164-6</ref>
www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/bio/b/bruegel/pieter_e/biograph.html Peter Brueghel Biography], Web Gallery of Art (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref>//www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/bio/b/bruegel/pieter_e/biograph.html Peter Brueghel Biography], Web Gallery of Art (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref>
www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/arts/Architec/RenaissanceArchitecture/ArchitectureandPublicSpace/ArchitectureandPublicSpace.htm Architecture and Public Space] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> The outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, combining the skills of Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sangallo and Maderno.//www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/arts/Architec/RenaissanceArchitecture/ArchitectureandPublicSpace/ArchitectureandPublicSpace.htm Architecture and Public Space] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> The outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, combining the skills of Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sangallo and Maderno.
Science
The upheavals occurring in the arts and humanities were mirrored by a dynamic period of change in the sciences. Some have seen this flurry of activity as a "scientific revolution," heralding the beginning of the modern age.<ref>Herbert Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science, 1300-1800, p. viii</ref> Others have seen it merely as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day.<ref>Steven Shapin, The Scientific Revolution, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1996), p. 1.</ref> Regardless, there is general agreement that the Renaissance saw significant changes in the way the universe was viewed and the methods with which philosophers sought to explain natural phenomena.<ref name="short-science">J. Brotton, "Science and Philosophy", The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction (OUP 2006)</ref>
Science and art were very much intermingled in the early Renaissance, with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. Yet the most significant development of the era was not a specific discovery, but rather a process for discovery, the scientific method.<ref name="short-science" /> This revolutionary new way of learning about the world focused on empirical evidence, the importance of mathematics, and discarding the Aristotelian "final cause" in favor of a mechanical philosophy. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus and Galileo.
The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy. With the publication of Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica, a new confidence was placed in the role of dissection, observation, and a mechanistic view of anatomy.<ref name="short-science" />
Religion
www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/religion.htm Religious Context in the Renaissance] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God.<ref name="openuni" /> Many of the period's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including Erasmus, Zwingli, Thomas More, Martin Luther, and John Calvin.//www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/religion.htm Religious Context in the Renaissance] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God.<ref name="openuni" /> Many of the period's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including Erasmus, Zwingli, Thomas More, Martin Luther, and John Calvin.
www.newadvent.org/cathen/13539a.htm Western Schism] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> While the schism was resolved by the Council of Constance (1414), the fifteenth century saw a resulting reform movement know as Conciliarism, which sought to limit the pope's power. While the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously of simony, nepotism and fathering four illegitimate children whilst Pope, whom he married off to gain more power.<ref>Catholic Encyclopedia, Alexander VI (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref>//www.newadvent.org/cathen/13539a.htm Western Schism] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> While the schism was resolved by the Council of Constance (1414), the fifteenth century saw a resulting reform movement know as Conciliarism, which sought to limit the pope's power. While the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously of simony, nepotism and fathering four illegitimate children whilst Pope, whom he married off to gain more power.<ref>Catholic Encyclopedia, Alexander VI (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref>
Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism of the New Testament.<ref name="openuni" /> Indeed, it was Luther who in October 1517 published the 95 Theses, challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to its sale of indulgences. The 95 Theses led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts.
Renaissance self-awareness
www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance/defining.htm Defining the Renaissance] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains Cimabue, Giotto, and Arnolfo di Cambio; the second phase contains Masaccio, Brunelleschi, and Donatello; the third centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates with Michelangelo. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature.<ref>Philip Sohm, Style in the Art Theory of Early Modern Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001)</ref>//www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance/defining.htm Defining the Renaissance] (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains Cimabue, Giotto, and Arnolfo di Cambio; the second phase contains Masaccio, Brunelleschi, and Donatello; the third centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates with Michelangelo. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature.<ref>Philip Sohm, Style in the Art Theory of Early Modern Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001)</ref>
The Renaissance spreads
In the 15th century the Renaissance spread with great speed from its birthplace in Florence, first to the rest of Italy, and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the printing press allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the twentieth century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements, including:
- The Italian Renaissance
- The English Renaissance
- The German Renaissance
- The Northern Renaissance
- The French Renaissance
- The Renaissance in the Netherlands
- The Polish Renaissance
- The Spanish Renaissance
- Renaissance architecture in Eastern Europe
The Northern Renaissance
mek.oszk.hu/02000/02042/html/5.html The Renaissance in Hungary]" (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> The most important humanists living in Matthias' court were Antonio Bonfini and Janus Pannonius.<ref name="czigany" /> In 1526 the Ottoman conquest of Hungary put an abrupt end to the short-lived Hungarian Renaissance.//mek.oszk.hu/02000/02042/html/5.html The Renaissance in Hungary]" (Retrieved on May 10 2007)</ref> The most important humanists living in Matthias' court were Antonio Bonfini and Janus Pannonius.<ref name="czigany" /> In 1526 the Ottoman conquest of Hungary put an abrupt end to the short-lived Hungarian Renaissance.
www.poland.gov.pl/Bona,Sforza,(1494,%E2%80%93,1557),1958.html History of Poland] on Polish Government's website (Retrieved on April 4-2007)</ref> This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly-established universities.<ref>For example, the re-establishment of Jagiellonian University in 1400.</ref>//www.poland.gov.pl/Bona,Sforza,(1494,%E2%80%93,1557),1958.html History of Poland] on Polish Government's website (Retrieved on April 4-2007)</ref> This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly-established universities.<ref>For example, the re-establishment of Jagiellonian University in 1400.</ref>
links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-8266%28196501%2980%3A314%3C156%3ATRROTG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J Available on JSTOR] (subscription required).</ref>//links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-8266%28196501%2980%3A314%3C156%3ATRROTG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J Available on JSTOR] (subscription required).</ref>
In England, the Elizabethan era marked the beginning of the English Renaissance with the work of writers William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, John Milton, and Edmund Spenser, as well as great artists, architects (such as Inigo Jones), and composers such as Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, and William Byrd.
The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through the Mediterranean possessions of the Aragonese Crown and the city of Valencia. Early Iberian Renaissance writers include Ausiàs March, Joanot Martorell, Fernando de Rojas, Juan del Encina, Garcilaso de la Vega, Gil Vicente and Bernardim Ribeiro. The late Renaissance in Spain saw writers such as Miguel de Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Luis de Góngora and Tirso de Molina, artists such as El Greco and composers such as Tomás Luis de Victoria. In Portugal writers such as Sá de Miranda and Luís de Camões and artists such as Nuno Gonçalves appeared.
links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0027-4631%28193901%2925%3A1%3C48%3ATSNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S The So Called Netherlands Schools]," The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 1. (Jan., 1939), pp. 48-59. (Subscription required for JSTOR link.)</ref> The music of the 15th century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renaissance in that art and the polyphony of the Netherlanders, as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of what was the first true international style in music since the standardization of Gregorian Chant in the 9th century.<ref name="musical-quarterly" /> The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian composer, Palestrina. At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian School, which spread northward into Germany around 1600.//links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0027-4631%28193901%2925%3A1%3C48%3ATSNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S The So Called Netherlands Schools]," The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 1. (Jan., 1939), pp. 48-59. (Subscription required for JSTOR link.)</ref> The music of the 15th century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renaissance in that art and the polyphony of the Netherlanders, as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of what was the first true international style in music since the standardization of Gregorian Chant in the 9th century.<ref name="musical-quarterly" /> The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian composer, Palestrina. At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian School, which spread northward into Germany around 1600.
www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/optg/hd_optg.htm Painting in Oil in the Low Countries and Its Spread to Southern Europe], Metropolitan Museum of Art website. (Retrieved April 5-2007)</ref>//www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/optg/hd_optg.htm Painting in Oil in the Low Countries and Its Spread to Southern Europe], Metropolitan Museum of Art website. (Retrieved April 5-2007)</ref>
The Renaissance's historiography
Conception
www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/burckhardt.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] (trans. S.G.C Middlemore, London, 1878)</ref> His book was widely read and was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance.<ref>Peter Gay, Style in History. (New York: Basic Books 1974).</ref> However, Buckhardt has been accused of setting forth a linear Whiggish view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern world.<ref name="starn">Randolph Starn, "Renaissance Redux" The American Historical Review Vol.103 No.1 p.124 (Subscription required for JSTOR link)</ref>//www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/burckhardt.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] (trans. S.G.C Middlemore, London, 1878)</ref> His book was widely read and was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance.<ref>Peter Gay, Style in History. (New York: Basic Books 1974).</ref> However, Buckhardt has been accused of setting forth a linear Whiggish view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern world.<ref name="starn">Randolph Starn, "Renaissance Redux" The American Historical Review Vol.103 No.1 p.124 (Subscription required for JSTOR link)</ref>
More recently, historians have been much less keen to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even a coherent cultural movement. As Randolph Starn has put it,
For better or for worse?
Much of the debate around the Renaissance has centered around whether the Renaissance truly was an "improvement" on the culture of the Middle Ages. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the progress made in the Renaissance towards the "modern age". Burckhardt likened the change to a veil being removed from man's eyes, allowing him to see clearly.
www.hull.ac.uk/renforum/v2no2/siar.htm Renaissance Forum] at Hull University, Autumn 1997 (Retrieved on 10-05-2007)</ref>//www.hull.ac.uk/renforum/v2no2/siar.htm Renaissance Forum] at Hull University, Autumn 1997 (Retrieved on 10-05-2007)</ref> Modèle:Quote box Johan Huizinga (1872–1945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was a positive change. In his book The Waning of the Middle Ages, he argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the High Middle Ages, destroying much that was important.<ref name="huizinga" /> The Latin language, for instance, had evolved greatly from the classical period and was still a living language used in the church and elsewhere. The Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw Latin revert to its classical form. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of deep economic recession. Meanwhile George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both argued that scientific progress was slowed.
Historians have begun to consider the word Renaissance as unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive "Dark Ages" (Middle Ages). Many historians now prefer to use the term "Early Modern" for this period, a more neutral designation that highlights the period as a transitional one between the Middle Ages and the modern era.<ref>S. Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare (University of Chicago Press, 1980)</ref>
Other Renaissances
The term Renaissance has also been used to define time periods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries. Charles H. Haskins (1870–1937), for example, made a convincing case for a Renaissance of the 12th century.<ref>Charles Homer Haskins. The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1927).</ref> Other historians have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the eighth and ninth centuries, and still later for an Ottonian Renaissance in the tenth century.<ref>Jean Hubert. L’Empire Carolingien (English: The Carolingian Renaissance, Translated by James Emmons (New York: G. Braziller, 1970).</ref> Other periods of cultural rebirth have also been termed "renaissances", such as the Bengal Renaissance or the Harlem Renaissance.
References and sources
References and notes
Sources
- Brotton, Jerry, The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction ISBN 0-19-280163-5
www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/burckhardt.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy], trans S.G.C Middlemore, republished in 1990 ISBN 0-14-044534-X//www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/burckhardt.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy], trans S.G.C Middlemore, republished in 1990 ISBN 0-14-044534-X
- Burke, P, The European Renaissance: Centre and Peripheries ISBN 0-631-19845-8
www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html The Cambridge Modern History. Vol 1: The Renaissance (1902)]//www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html The Cambridge Modern History. Vol 1: The Renaissance (1902)]
- Cronin, Vincent (1967), The Florentine Renaissance, ISBN 0-00-211262-0; (1969), The Flowering of the Renaissance, ISBN 0-7126-9884-1; (1992), The Renaissance, ISBN 0-00-215411-0
- Ergang, Robert (1967), The Renaissance, ISBN 0-442-02319-7
www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=11874730 Europe in Transition, 1300-1500], ISBN 0-04-940008-8//www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=11874730 Europe in Transition, 1300-1500], ISBN 0-04-940008-8
- Haskins, Charles Homer (1927), The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century, ISBN 0-674-76075-1
- Huizinga, Johan (1924), The Waning of the Middle Ages, republished in 1990 ISBN 0-14-013702-5
- Jensen, De Lamar (1992), Renaissance Europe, ISBN 0-395-88947-2
- Lopez, Robert S. (1952), Hard Times and Investment in Culture
- Strathern, Paul (2003), The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance, ISBN 1-844-13098-3
- Stephens, John, The Italian Renaissance: The Origins of Intellectual and Artistic Change before the Renaissance ISBN 0-582-49337-4
links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-5037%28194301%294%3A1%3C%3E1.0.CO%3B2-Z Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 4, No. 1, Jan. 1943] (Subscription required for JSTOR link.)//links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-5037%28194301%294%3A1%3C%3E1.0.CO%3B2-Z Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 4, No. 1, Jan. 1943] (Subscription required for JSTOR link.)
- Weiss, Roberto (1969) The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity, ISBN 1-597-40150-1
See also
Internal Links
- Renaissance man
- List of Renaissance figures
- Humanism
- Protestant Reformation
- Scientific Revolution
- Renaissance architecture
- Bengal Renaissance
- Pederasty in the Renaissance
- Continuity thesis
- Early modern Europe
External links
www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html The Cambridge Modern History. Vol 1: The Renaissance (1902)]//womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/blbio_list_medieval.htm Notable Medeival and Renaissance Women] www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html The Cambridge Modern History. Vol 1: The Renaissance (1902)]//www.faculty.de.gcsu.edu/~dvess/ids/women/renwom.html Ancient and Renaissance women] by Dr. Deborah Vess
- You must specify title = and url = when using {{cite web}}.
. British Galleries . Victoria and Albert Museum
www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/british_galleries/bg_styles/Style01a/index.html//www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/british_galleries/bg_styles/Style01a/index.html
. Retrieved on 2007-07-16.
- Interactive Resources
renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance] renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//www.compart-multimedia.com/virtuale/us/florence/florence.htm Florence: 3D Panoramas of Florentine Renaissance Sites(English/Italian)] renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//www.renaissanceconnection.org/main.cfm Multimedia Exploration of the Renaissance] renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//www.activehistory.co.uk/Miscellaneous/free_stuff/renaissance/frameset.htm Virtual Journey to Renaissance Florence] renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//interconnected.org/home/more/davinci/ RSS News Feed: Get an entry from Leonardo's Journal delivered each day]
- Lectures and Galleries
renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//www.museobagattivalsecchi.org The Bagatti Valsecchi Museum] renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/REN/IDEA.HTM The Idea of the Renaissance] renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//www.medievalhistory.net/islamica.htm The Islamic Foundation of the Renaissance] renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//www.elrelojdesol.com/leonardo-da-vinci/gallery-english/index.htm Leonardo da Vinci, Gallery of Paintings and Drawings] renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//www.all-art.org/history214_contents_Renaissance.html Renaissance in the "History of Art"] renaissancethorne.wetpaint.com/ Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance]//www.rensoc.org.uk/ The Society for Renaissance Studies]
Modèle:History of Europe Modèle:WesternartModèle:Link FA
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